PHOTOGRAMMETRY

UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ON

1.1Backgr ound
Phot ogrammet ryaimsatmeasur ingormappi ngoft errainobj ects(2Dor3D)
from phot ogr aphst akenei therfrom ai rorfrom st ati
onsont hegr ound.I tisa
Gr eekwor dcomposedwi tht hreewor dsnamel yphot on :li
ght ,graphein :to
engr ave,wr i
te,recordandmet r
ein:t omeasur e.Ifthephot ogr
aphsar etakenbya
camer a placed ata f ixed posi ti
on on t he gr ound i ti s called Terrestr
ial
Phot ogrammet ryandi fthephot ogr aphsaret akenf rom acamer amount edi nan
aircraft flyi
ng ov er t he gr ound i t is cal led Aer ial Phot ogrammet ry.
Phot ogrammet ryi s used f or v arious pur poses such as compi l
ation of
topogr aphicmaps,cl assif
icationofsoi ls,i
nterpretat
ionforgeol ogicaluses,data
acqui si
tionformi li
taryoper ati
ons, etc.

Wesaycommonl yphot
ogr
aphs,buti
tmaybealsoi
magerystor
edelect
roni
cal
l
y
ont apeordi skt
akenbyvi
deoorCCDcamer asorradi
ati
onsensorssuchas
scanners.
Ther esul
tscanbe:

 coor
dinat
esoft
her
equi
redobj
ect
-poi
nts

 t
opographi
calandthematical
maps
 r
ect
ifi
edphotographs(or
thophot
o).

I
tsmosti mportantf eat
ureist hefact,thattheobjectsaremeasur edwithout
bei
ngt ouched.Ther efor
e,thet er
m" remot esensi
ng"isusedbysomeaut hors
i
nsteadof" Photogrammet r
y "
.Remot esensingisaratheryoungterm,whichwas
ori
ginal
lyconf i
ned to working with aer
ialphotographsand sat el
li
teimages.
Today,i
tincludesalsophot ogrammet r
y,alt
houghiti
sst i
llassoci
atedrat
herwith
i
magei nter
pretati
on.

1.1.
1 Defi
nit
ionofPhot ogr
ammetry
Photogrammetry is the sci ence and technol
ogy of obtai
ning spat
ial
measurements and ot her geometri
cal
l
y der i
ved product
s from aerial
photographs(
Lil
l
isandetal.
,2005).

I
nternat
ionalSoci
etyforPhotogr
ammetryandRemot
eSensi
ngSoci
ety(
ISPRS)
defi
nesthePhotogrammetryasfol
lows:

PhotogrammetryandRemot eSensi
ngi st hear t,sci
ence,andtechnologyof
obtaini
ng r
eli
ableinfor
mat i
on fr
om non- contactimaging and othersensor
systemsaboutt heEart
handi tsenvir
onment ,andotherphysi
calobjectsand
processest
hroughrecor
ding,measur
ing,analyzingandrepr
esent
ati
on.

1
SpatialInformat i
onSciencei stheart,science,and t
echnologyofobt ai
ning
rel
iablespat i
al,spectr
alandt emporalrel
ationshi
psbetweenphy sicalobjects,
and ofpr ocessesf orint
egrat
ionwithotherdat aforanalysis,portr
ayaland
representati
on,independentl
yofscal
e.

1.
2Hi st
oryi
nBrief
1851:Onl yadecadeaftertheinv
ent
ionofthe“Daguer
rot
ypie“byDaguer
reand
Niepce,thefr
enchoff
icerAimeLaussedatdevel
opsthefi
rstphot
ogrammetr
ical
devicesandmethods.Hei sseenast
heini
ti
atorofPhot
ogrammetry.

1858:The German archi

tectA.Mey denbauerdevelops phot
ogrammet r
ical
techni
ques for t
he documentat
ion of buildi
ngs and i nst
all
s the first
photogrammetr
ici
nst
it
utei
n1858(RoyalPrussi
anPhotogrammetricI
nsti
tut
e).

1866:The Vi ennese physi

cistErnstMach publ
ishes the idea t
o use the
stereoscopet
oest i
matevolumetr
icmeasur
es.
1885:The anci entrui
nsofPer sepol
i
sweret he fi
rstarchaeol
ogicalobj
ect
recordedphot
ogr ammetri
call
y.

1889:
Thef
ir
stGer
manmanual
ofphot
ogr
ammet
rywaspubl
i
shedbyC.Koppe.

1896:Eduard Gaston and Dani

elDev
il
le pr
esentt
he f
ir
stst
ereoscopi
cal
i
nstrumentf
orvect
orizedmappi
ng.

1897/
98:
TheodorSchei
mpf
lugi
nvent
sthedoubl
epr
oject
ion.

1901:Pul
fri
ch creat
es the f
ir
st„
Ster
eokompar
ator
“and r
evol
uti
onat
es t
he
mappingf
rom st
ereopai
rs.

1903:TheodorScheimpf
lugi
nvent
sthe„
Per
spekt
ogr
aph“
,ani
nst
rumentf
or
opti
cal
rect
ifi
cat
ion.

1910:TheI SP (
Int
ernat
ionalSoci
etyf
orPhot
ogr
ammet
ry)
,now I
SPRS,was
foundedbyE.Dol
ezalinAustr
ia.

1911:TheAustri
anTh.Schei
mpf l
ugfi
ndsawayt ocr eat
erecti
fi
edphotographs.
Heisconsider
edastheini
ti
atorofaer
ialphot
ogrammet ry
,si
ncehewast hef i
rst
succeedi
ngtoapplyt
hephotogrammetri
calpr
inci
plestoaeri
alphot
ographs.

1913:Thefi
rstcongr
essoft
heISPwasheldi
nVienna.
unti
l1945:devel
opmentandimpr
ovementofmeasuri
ng(
“met
ri
c“)camer
asand
anal
ogueplott
ers.

1964:Fi
rstarchit
ect
uralt
estswit
hthenewst er
eometr
iccamera-syst
em,whi
ch
hadbeeninventedbyCarlZei
ss,
OberkochenandHansForami
tt
i,Vienna.

2
1968:Fir
sti
nter
nat
ionalSy
mposi
um forphot
ogrammet
ri
calappl
i
cat
ions t
o
hi
stor
ical
monument
swasheldi
nPari
s-Sai
ntMandé.

1970:Const it
ution ofCIPA (ComitéInternati
onalde la Photogrammétri
e
Archi
tectural
e)asoneoft heinter
nati
onalspeciali
zedcommi t
teesofICOMOS
(I
nter
nationalCouncilonMonumentsandSi tes)incooper
ati
onwi t
hISPRS.The
twomai nactivi
stswereMaur
iceCarbonnel
l,France,andHansForamit
ti
,Aust
ri
a.

1970ies:Theanalyt
icalpl
ott
ers,whi
chweref i
rstusedbyU.Hel avain1957,
rev
olutionat
ephotogrammetry.Theyall
ow apply
ingmor ecomplexmethods:
aerot
riangul
ati
on,
bundle-
adj
ustment,
theuseofamateurcamerasetc.

1980ies:Due t
oi mpr
ov ement
sin computerhar
dware and sof
twar
e,di
git
al
photogrammetr
yisgai
ningmoreandmoreimport
ance.

1.3Projecti
on
We considermapsasor t
hogonalproj
ect
ionsofthe t
err
ainto a hori
zont
al
ref
erencesur f
aceshownatar educedscalewher
easphot ogr
aphsasexact
centr
alperspecti
vepr
oject
ion.Thegeometr
yofthei
magesproducedfrom ot
her
sensorsismorecomplicat
ed.
Pr
oper
ti
esofOr thogonal Projecti
onar easf ollows:
 Al limagepoi ntsarei naplane
 Al li magi ng r ays ar e str
aight l i
nes par all
elt o each other and
perpendi culartothepr oj
ectionsur face
 Anyobj ectl i
newhi chi sinapl anepar al
lelt otheprojecti
onplaneis
preserv edwi thoutdistorti
on.Hor izontaldistanceinthet er
rai
nandi n
thepr ojectionisthesame
 Al i
newhi chisper pendiculartot hepr oj
ect i
onpl aneisreducedtoa
singlepoi nt
 I ncl
inedl inewi l
lappearshor tenedi ntheprojection
 Asetofpar al
lell
inesi ntheterrai
nwi l
lal
sobepar al
lel
intheproj
ecti
on.
Pr
oper
ti
esofPer spectivePr ojecti
onar easf ol
lows:
 Al li
magepoi ntsar einapl ane
 Al limagingr aysar eexact lystraightli
nesandpasst hroughonepoi nt
whichist ermedasPr ojecti
onCent reorPer specti
veCentre
 Anyobj ectlinewhi chisi napl anepar al
leltotheprojecti
onpl aneis
preservedwi thoutdi storti
onbuti t'
ssi zei schanged.Thischangeof
si
z edifferentf orpl anesatdi fferentdi stancesfrom thepr oject
ion
centre.
 A setofpar all
ellinesi nt het er r
aindoesnecessar il
yshow upas
parall
ellinesi nthei mage.Onl ypar al
lellines\int
het err
ainwhichar e
al
sopar all
elt othei magepl anear epar all
elintheimaget oo.Other

3
 par
all
ellinesintheterr
ainhav
eimages\
whi
chconv
erget
oapoi
nt
cal
l
edv anishi
ngpoi
nt.
1.
4SomeI
mpor
tantTer
minol
ogi
es
Fi
ducialMark:AFiducialMarkisamar kl ocatedincontactwi t
ht hephotographi c
emulsioninacamer ai magepl anetopr ovidear eferencel i
nef orthepl ate
measur ementofi mages.Gener all
y,t here could be eightsuch mar ks i
na
photograph,fouratthecor nersandf ouratt hemi ddleoft heedgesoft he
photograph.
Fi
ducialAxis:Oppositef i
duci
almar ksdef i
near eferencel i
ne.Two pai rsof
oppositefi
ducialmarksdefinetwor eferencel i
nesthati nt
ersectatrightangl e.
Theset woli
nesarereferr
edtothef i
ducialaxes.

a
Phot
o

b i

p
Hor
izont
al
S
S

Fl
yi
ngHei
ght
,H
Q

Gr
ound
θ N I P
Hor
izont
al
A
B
R

Q
ThePer
spect
iveDi
agr
am

CameraAxi
s:I
tisthel
inepassingthr
oughthecentr
eofthecamer
alens
per
pendi
cul
artothecameraplateandthepict
urepl
ane.

PrincipalPoint:Pr
incipalpoi
ntisthef ootoftheperpendicul
arf
rom per
spect
ive
centret otheplaneoft hephotograph.Itcanalsobedefinedaastheort
hogonal
projecti
onoft heprojecti
oncentreontotheimageplane.

NadirPoint
: Thepoi
ntont hegr
oundver
ti
cal
lybeneat
htheexposur
estat
ionofan
aeri
alphotographiscal
ledGroundNadi
rPointandcorr
espondi
ngimagepoi
ntat
thephotographiscal
ledimagenadi
rpoi
nt.

4
Perspect
iveCent
re:I
tispoi
ntofor
igi
nort
ermi
nat
ionofbundl
esofper
spect
ive
ray
s.

FocalLength:I
tisthedi
stancef
rom t
hef
rontnodalpoi
ntoft
hel
enst
othepl
ane
ofthephotograph.

Pri
nci
palDi
stance:I
tist
heper
pendi
cul
ardi
stancef
rom per
spect
ivecent
ret
o
thei
mageplane.

Pri
ncipalAxis:ThePri
ncipalAxi
sisthel
i
neper
pendi
cul
art
othei
magepl
aneand
passesthrought hepr
ojecti
oncent
re.

Pr
inci
pal
Plane:
Iti
sthev
ert
ical
planecont
aini
ngt
hepr
inci
pal
axi
s.

Pr
inci
palLi
ne:Iti
st hel
ineofint
ersect
ionofthepri
nci
palpl
aneandt
hei
mage
pl
ane.I
tcont
ainsthepri
nci
palpoi
ntandnadirpoi
nt.

Ti
lt
:Iti
saver
ti
calangl
edef
inedbyt
hei
nter
sect
ionatt
heexposur
est
ati
onoft
he
opt
ical
axi
swit
htheplumbl
ine.

I
socent
re:Itist
hepoi
nti
nwhi
cht
hebi
sect
oroft
heangl
eoft
il
tmeet
sthe
phot
ograph.

Homol
ogousPoi
nts:Apai
rofthet
err
ainpoi
ntandi
tscor
respondi
ngpoi
ntatt
he
i
mageplanei
scal
ledHomol
ogousPoi
nts.

FormatofPhot ogr
aph:Size oft
he phot
os areref
err
ed t
o Formatoft
he
photogr
aph.ThreetypesofFor
matareav
ail
abl
e,t
heyar
easfol
lows:
 SmallFormat: 70mm x70mm
 Normal Format:230mm x230mm
 LargeFormat:

1.
5Component sofPhot ogrammet ry
Thef
ollowingar ethecomponent sofPhot ogrammet ry
:
a)Aer ialPhotography :I
nAer i
alPhot ogrammet r
y,thebasi ci
nputistheaer
ial
photographswhi charetakenf r
om t heairbyaerialcameramount edonan
air
craft.Thet ypesofphot ographscoul dbev erticalorobl
iquedependi
ng
upont hev ert
icalit
yoftheaxi soft hecamer a.Thosephot ographscanbe
takenwi t
ht helensofdi f
ferentfocal l
ength.

b)ContactPri
nti
ng:Oncetheflyingisover,thenegativ
ewillbeprocessedin
aprocessinglab.I
tcanbepr ocessedei thermanual
l
ywher et hef i
l
ms
needtodriedbyadr i
erorcanebepr ocessedonanaut omaticprocessor
wherefil
mscomesoutdr y.Thent hecont actpri
ntsar
emadei ncontact
fr
ame.Ther earetwot y
pesofcont actprinter
.Oneofthem isamanual
syst
em inwhichtheli
ghtintensit
yindifferentpar
tsoft
henegat i
vehast o

5
 contr
olmanuall
ybyswi tchi
ngonorofft hebul
bsont heareadepending
upont hei
magequal i
ty.Thesecondt y
pei sanaut omati
cprocessorin
whichthedensi
tyiscontrol
ledaut
omatical
lybythescannerhoweverthe
desir
eddensi
tyhastobesetont hepr
ocessorbefor
ehand.

c)Photomaps:Whent herei sademandf oraphot omap,i tcanbepr epared

eit
her by conv entional recti
fi
cat ion or by di f
f erenti
al r ect i
ficat
ion
dependingupont henat ureofthet errain.Inot herwor ds,ifthear eai sf
lat,
onehast odoconv enti
onalrecti
ficat i
onwhi chi sdonei nar ecti
fier.Ifthe
areaisslightl
yundul ati
ngonehast or esortt odiffer enti
alrect i
ficationin
anorthophotoequi pmentwhi chi sat tachedt oast er eopl ott
er .
d)PointTransferri
ng:Thecont rolpoi ntsr equiredf ort hePhot ogrammet ri
c
processar ebeingmar kedont hephot obypoi nttransf erdev i
ce.I near l
y
peri
odneedl eswer eusedt oprickpoi nt.Asi tisv erydi ffi
cultt omai nt
ain
requi
red accur acy by usi ng needl es,hi gh qual ityi nstrument s wer e
developed.Thedesi gnernotonl yusedt hehi ghqual it
ydr ill
erssuchas
sapphireneedlest heyev entri
edt ousel aserbeamst odril
lpoi ntsandat
l
ongl astsucceededt oachievehighaccur ater esult
s.

Duet odevelopmentofdi
gitaltechniquesofmappi ng,comput ersupported
met hodsforpointtr
ansferbydi git
ali magepr ocessi
ngi sdev el
oped.So
graduall
ythismethodisreplacingal lothermethodsofpoi nttransf
err
ing.
Thedev el
opingofthesedev icesreal i
zedbecauset heaccur acyoft he
points deri
ved fr
om aerialtriangulati
on invari
ably depends upon t he
accuracywithwhichthepointsarebei ngmar kedandtransferr
ed.

e)Aeri
alTr iangulati
on:The i nputdataf oraer ialt r
iangulat
ion can be
col
lectedf r
om t heprecisi
onst er
eoplott
er,mono/ st
ereocompar atoror
analy
ticalplott
er.Thesedatacanber ecordedindifferentdevi
cessuchas
papertapes, punchcards,magnetict
apes,floppydisc,harddisc,DVD, et
c.
Howev erthedat aprocessingiscarr
iedouti nthecomput erofsuf f
ici
ent
capacity.
f
) MapCompi lat
ion:Oncet hesuf f
icientnumberofcont r
olpoint
satdesi r
ed
l
ocat i
onsisav ai
lable,mapcoul dbecompi l
edont hest er
eoplott
ers.The
choice oft he stereo plott
ershoul d be compat iblet othe type of
photographusedandt heselectionoft hemapscal e.Sincethegener al
tr
endi nmappi ngi sshift
ingtowar dsatomizati
on,thecomput erassist
ed
ster
eopl ott
ersattachedwi t
hdr afti
ngtablearebei
ngused sot hathighly
accurateresul
tscoul dbeobtainedatcompar ati
vel
yl owcost .

Besi
dethesepri
maryinstr
uments,therearemi norinst
rument
swhi chcoul
d
beusedformapr evi
sionandphotoi nter
pret
ation.Now adays,scanneri
s
al
sousedtoscanthephototoobtai
ninputdataf ormapcompil
ati
on.
1.
6ScopeofPhot
ogr
ammet
ryi
nSur
veyPr
ofessi
on

6
Photogrammet ryisused t o mensur ation purposesf ormap maki ng.Inthis
process,itincl
udesaerialphotography,densi f
icati
onofcont rolpoint
sbyaer i
al
tr
iangulati
onmet hod,mapcompi lati
oni nast er
eopl ott
er,or
thophotoproducti
on.
I
naddi tiontosuchwor ksspatialdatasuchascoor dinat
eofcont r
olpoint
sand
abstractdat asuchasnames,admi nistr
ationboundar yand cl assi
fi
cati
onof
detai
ls ar e necessar
y.Ther eforef ield surv ey is needed to compl iment
Photogrammet rywhichareasf ol
lowing:
1.pr
ovi
der
efer
encepoi
ntsf
orPhot
ogr
ammet
ry

2.i
dent
if
yhi
ddendet
ail
s

3.cl
ari
fythenatur
eoft
heobj
ect
swhi
char
evi
sibl
eint
hei
magesbutcannotbe
cl
earl
yident
if
ied

4.cl
assi
fyt
hedet
ail
s

5.col
l
ectnames

6.v
eri
fyaccur
acyoft
hePhot
ogr
ammet
ri
cmeasur
ement
s.

Theref
ore,scopesofPhot ogr ammet r
yinSur veypr
ofessi
onar
ethef ol
l
owing:
 Densificat i
onofcont r
ol net
wor kforsubsequentmappi
ng
 Prepar ationofmanuscr i
ptfordif
ferentscal
esofmapping
 Gener ationofDi gi
talTerrai
nModel
 Updat i
ngt hemaps
 Phot oi nterpr
etati
onf ordif
ferentkindsofthematicmappingsuchassoi
l
map, landusemap, geologi
cal map, f
orestmap,et
c.

1.
7Compar
isonofAer
ial
Phot
ogr
aphandMap

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weenanAer
ial
Phot
ogr
aphanda
Map:

S.No. Char acteri

sti
cs Aer i
alPhotogr aph Map
1. Projecti
on Cent r
alPerspect i
ve Ort
hogonal
2. Scale Variati
on Constant
3. Cont ents AllVisi
bleObj ects Sel
ectedObject
s
4. Presentations Nat ur
al Symbolic
5. Repr oducti
on Highcostf orlarge Cheaper
quant i
ti
es
6. Updat
e Notpossi ble Easy
7. Di
stor
ti
on Occurduet oRel i
ef Nodist
ort
ion
andTi l
t
8. Hi
ddenDet
ail
s Existduet ohigh Nohi
ddendet
ail
s
objects
9. I
nter
pret
ati
on Highknowl edge Easy
10. 3Dimensi
on Possiblewi t
hst ereo Notpossi
ble

7
 Viewing Pair
11. Additional Noadditional Namesandr emarks
I
nf or
mat i
on i
nformation added
12. Enlargement Possibl
e Notrecommended
13. Coordi nateSy
stem Fi
ducialcoordi
nat
e Nati
onalCoordi
nate
Syst
em Syst
em

UNI
T2:
AERI
ALPHOTOGRAPHY

2.
1ABasi
cConceptofAer
ial
Camer
a

Aer
ialCamerai susedt otakeaer i
alphot ographyforvari
ouspurposes.Aeri
al
Cameradif
fersfrom or
dinar
ycamer asinhi ghdegreeofpreci
sionandsuperi
ori
ty
ofworkmanship.Theaeri
alcamer arequir
est hefol
lowi
ng:
 fastlens
 highspeedandef ficientshutter
 highspeedemul sionf orthefil
m
 amagazi netoholdl argerolloffi
lm

2.
1.1Ty pesofAeri
alCamer
a
Therearemanyt y
pesofaer
ialcamer
as:
1. Aeri
alMappingCamera(si
ngl
eLens)
:Aer
ialmappi
ngcamer
as(
also
cal
ledasmetr
icorcart
ographi
ccameras)ar
esingl
elensfr
amecamer
as
designedt
opr
ovideext
remelyhi
ghgeometri
cimagequali
ty.

2.Reconnai
ssanceCamer
a

3.St
ri
pCamer
a

4.Panor
ami
cCamer
a

8
 5.Mul
tiLensCamer
a

6.Di
git
alCamer
a

2.
2Essent
ial
Par
tsofanAer
ial
Camer
a

Anaerialcameraconsistsoft
he
fol
l
owi ngessenti
al par
ts:
a)Thel ensassembl y
b)Thecamer acone
c)Thef ocalplane
d)Thecamer abody
e)Thedr iv
emechani sm
f) Themagazi ne

a)Thel
ensassembly
Thel
ensassemblyconsist
soft
hef
oll
owi
ng
i) Thelenses
ii
) Thediaphragm
ii
i
) Theshut ter
iv
) TheFi l
ter

i
) Thel ens:I tisacombi nat i
onofl enst obr ingal lther aystot hefocal
plane.Ar ayofl ightpassest hr
ought wonodalpoi nts;onecal led
fr
ontnodal poi ntandt hesecondoner earnodal poi nt .
i
i
) Thedi aphr agm:I tispl acedbet weent hel ensel ement s.Itist he
phy si
calopeni ngoft hel ens.Di aphr agm i smadeupofaser i
esof
l
eav eswhi chcanber otatedt oincreaseordecr easet hesi zeoft he
opening.I tsf unctioni st ocont r
olt heser i
esoft hebundl eofr ays
stri
kingt heemul sion.
i
i
i) Theshut ter :Theshut tercont rol
st hei nt
erv aloft imedur ingwhi ch
l
ightisal lowedt opasst hr oughthel ens.I ngener al,theaircraftfl
ies
atahi ghspeedsoaf astspeedshut teri sr equi redt opr event
blurri
ngoft hei mageduet omot i
onoft heai rcr aft.Theshut t
er
speedv ariesf rom 1/ 100secondt o1/ 1000thsecond.
i
v) Thef il
ter:Af i
lt
eri sapi eceofcol our edgl asspl acedi nfrontoft he
l
ens.I tpr ev ents st r
aybl ue and v ioletray si nt he at mospher e
causedbyhazeandmoi sture.Ital sopr ot ectst hel ensf r
om t he
fl
yingpar ticlesi nt heatmospher e.

b) Thecamer acone
Thecamer aconesuppor tst heent i
relensassembly.Ital
soprevent
sany
otherlighttopenetrat
eexceptt hr
ought helens.Theconeismadeupofthe
mat er
ialhavinglow coef
fi
cientoft hermalexpansi
ontoholdthelensatt
he
properdistancefrom t
hefocal pl
ane.

c)Thef
ocal
plane

9
 Att het opofcameraconethecoll
i
mat i
onmarksareprovi
dedwhi
chdefi
ne
thef ocalpl
aneofthecamer
a.I
tiskeptatsuchadi
stancef
rom t
her
earnodal
pointthatbestpossi
blei
mageisobtai
ned.

d)Thecamerabody
Thecamer
abodymai ntai
nsthefi
xeddi
stancebet
weenthel
ensandtheplane
oft
hephotogr
aph.I
talsocontai
nsthef
iduci
almarkswhi
charephot
ographed
whenev
eranexposur
ei smade.

e)Thedri
vemechanism
Thedr
ivemechani
sm ishousedinthecamerabodyandi t
sf uncti
onsareas
fol
l
ows:
 Windingandtri
ppingtheshutt
er
 operati
ngthevacuum syst
em forfl
att
eningthef i
l
m
 windingthefi
l
m eithermanual
lyorbyelectri
cdevices

f) Themagazi ne
Themagazi nehol dstheexposedandunexposedf i
l
m.I thousesthefil
m
fl
atteni
ngdevice.Mechanism inthemagazi neisdesi
gnedtiwindthecorr
ect
amountoff il
m wi t
houtdoubleexposur es.Thefil
mi skeptflatagai
nstthe
focalpl
aneeitherbyinser
tingpressureplat
efrom topwit
hsmal lhol
estoget
theairoutorbyapplyi
ngthev acuum sothatairi
sexhaust
edout .

2.3TypesofLens
Accordi
ngtot hefieldanglewhichistheanglesubtendedbyt hediagonalofa
normalphotographatt heperspect
ivecentr
e,fourty
pesofl ensdoexi stinthe
aeri
alcamera.Theyar easfol
l
ows:
i
) NarrowAngl eLens: 610mm focall
engthwith300fiel
dangle
i
i)Normal AngleLens: 300mm focall
engthwith550fieldangle
i
ii
)WideAngl eLens: 150mm focall
engthwith900fieldangle
i
v)SupperWi deAngleLens: 90mm f ocal
lengthwi
th1200
fi
eldangle

1)Nar r
owangl el ensi susedfortakingphot ographsofthear eahavi
nghighrise
buil
ding.
2)Nor malanglel ensisusedf ort
aki ngphot ogr
aphsoft heurbanareaandforest
area.
3)Wi deangl el ensi sused i sused f ort aki
ng photographsoft heareaf or
topographicmappi ng,andphot oi nterpretati
onf orrecognit
ionofsoilpatt
er n,
geologicalunit
s,etc.
4)Superwi deanglel ensisusedf ort akingphot ogr
aphsoft heflatar
eaandf or
quickcov er
age

10
2.
4Ty
pesofAer
ial
Phot
ogr
aph

Ther
ear
ethr
eecat
egor
iesofaer
ial
phot
ogr
aphs,
theyar
e:
1)Vert
ical
Photograph:Thephototakenwi
tht
hecamer
aaxi
str
ulyv
ert
ical
iti
s
ter
medasv ert
icalphotogr
aph.

2)Til
tedPhotograph:Thephototakenwi tht
hecamer
aaxi
sunintent
ional
l
yt i
l
ted
fr
om theverti
calbyasmal lamount,usual
lyl han30i
esst stermedast i
lt
ed
photogr
aphornear l
yvert
icalphotograph.

3)Obl
ique:Thephototakenwit
ht hecamer
aaxisdi
rectedint
enti
onall
ybet
weenthe
hor
izont
alandthev er
ti
cali
stermedasobli
quephotograph.Ther
earetwoty
pes
ofObli
quephotograph,t
heyare:

 LowOblique:
Ift
heapparenthor
izoni
snotshown,i
tissai
dtobelow
obli
que.
 HighObli
que:I
ftheappar
enthori
zoni
sshown,iti
ssaidtobehi
ghobli
que
photogr
aph.

LowObl
i
quePhot
o Hi
ghObl
i
quePhot
o

2.
5Phot
ogr
aphi
cPr
ocess

Whenaphot ogr aphicmat er

iali
sexposedt othel i
ghtt hefi
lm doesnotpr oducea
visibl
eimagei mmedi atelyratheri twillfor
m al atentimage.Soi nordertomake
thei magev i
siblet hemat eri
almustbedev el
opandt henthesensitivi
tyt olight
mustbef ixed.Thepr ocessi scalledwetpr ocessingandi tisdonebybat hingt he
mat eri
ali
ndi fferentchemi calsolutions.Ther esul
ti snormal l
yanegat ive.I na
blackandwhi tephot ogr aphydarkobj ectsproduceal i
ghtimageandl i
ghtobj ects
adar kimage.I ncol ourphot ographyi tisnotonl yt hebr i
ghtnessbutal sot he
colourisreversedsuchasagr eenishbl uei magef orredobj ectanday ell
ow
i
magef orblueobj ects.Fur ther
mor e,whenl ookingt otheemul sionsi de,t he
i
magesappearmi r
r ored.So, togetaposi t
iveandr ightreadingimageonesi mpl y
makesaphot ographi ccopyoft henegat ive.Thisi snor mall
ydonebycont act
printi
ngtopreser vet hegeomet ryasmuchaspossi ble.

11
Duri
ngthepr ocess,thenegat iv
ei splacedonal i
ghtsensit
ivefil
m( emul si
ont o
emulsi
on)andt hefi
lmisexposedt hrought henegative,t
hentheexposedf il
mi s
devel
opedandar i
ghtreadingposi ti
vecopyi sprepared.Theov erallbrightness
canbecontrolledthroughtheexposur eandpr ocessi
ngt i
me.Oneshoul dkeepi n
mindthattheunexposedf i
lm shoul dnev erbeexposedt olightt owhi chitis
sensi
ti
veatanyt i
mebet weeni t
spr oducti
onandt hefi
xing.Aeri
alfi
lmi snor mal l
y
sensi
ti
vet o alll i
ghtto whi ch human ey ei s sensit
ive so itist ermed as
panchr
omatic.Forcopy ingblackandwhi teimageonecanusemat er i
alwhi chis
onlysensi
ti
vet obluelightorgr eenory ellow.Suchf il
m mat eri
alst ermedas
ort
hochromatic.Insuchcase,or angeorr edl ightcanbeusedf orcopy ingfil
m
wit
houtspoil
ingt hemat er
ial
.

2.
6Scal
eofVer
ti
cal
Aer
ial
Phot
ogr
aph O
onl
ywhent
hepoi
ntshav
ethesame
Thev erticalaer i
alphot ographsar ein f a
theper spect i
vepr oject ion,sot heimage Phot
ogr
ap
pointswi l
lbedi splacedwher et hereare k a0 h
vari
at i
onsi nthegr oundel ev ation.See
i
nt hef iguret hatt hegr oundpoi ntsA
and A0 si tuated v ertical l
y abov e are H
displacedonav erticalphot ogr aphand
arer epresentedataanda0r espect iv
ely
.
K Gr
oun A
Duet othisdisplacement ,scal eatAand
A0 wi l
lbedi f
ferent.Scal ewi llbesame
elevation.Sot hisi ndi catest hatift he h
elevationsofpoi nt
sv ary,thescal eof Dat
um
thephot ographwi llv ar yfrom poi ntto
K0 A0
pointont hephot ograph.

CaseI :When t
hegr
ound poi
ntshav
esameel
evat
ion (
When t
hegr
ound i
s
hori
zontal
)

S
cal
e()= Phot
S
oDist
anc
e
Dist
anceGr
ound
ka Ok f
Fr
om f
igur
e,S= = =
KA OK H-
h
Wher
e H=heightoftheai
rcraf
tabov
eMeanSeaLev
el(
Dat
um)
f=focallengt
hofthecamera
h=heightofthegr
oundpoint

CaseI
I:Whent
hegr
oundpoi
ntshav
edi
ff
erentel
evat
ion
LetAandBbet wopoi ntshav i
ngelevat
ionshaandhbr espect
ivel
yabov
emean
sealevel
.Theyar
er epresentedbyaandbr espect
ivel
yont hemap.ki sthe
pri
nci
palpoi
ntofthev ert
icalphot
ographt akenatahei ghtH abovemeansea
O

f 12
a b

k
l
evel
.

ak
Thescal
eoft
hephot
ogr
aphatt
heel
evat
ionhai
sev
ident
lyequal
tot
her
ati
o .
AK
a
k Ok f
Fr
om si
mil
art
ri
angl
es, = =
AKa Oka (H-
ha)
f
Hence,
thescal
eoft
hephot
ogr
aphatt
heel
evat
ionhai
sequal
to
(H-
ha)
Si
mi l
arl
y,t
hescal
eofthephotographattheel
evat
ionhbisequalt
otherat
io
bk Ok f
= =
BKb OKb H- hb
.
f
Hencethescal
eofthephotographatt ghthbi
hehei sequalt
o .
(
H-hb)
I
ngener
al,
ther
efor
e,t
hescal
eoft
hephot
ographi
sgi
venby
f
S
h=
H-h
Sh=scal
eatt
heel
evat
ionh
Thescal
eoft hephot
ogr
aphcanal
sobedesi
gnat
edbyt
her
epr
esent
ati
ve
fr
act
ion(Rf)
,i.
e.
1
Rf=
(H-
h)/f
wher
e,(
H-h)andfar
eexpr
essedi
nthesameuni
t(i
.e.met
ers)
.

Dat
um Scale(
Sd)
Thedat
um scal
eofaphot ogr
aphisthatscal
ewhichwoul
dbeeffect
iveov
erthe
ent
ir
ephotogr
aphifal
lthegroundpoint
swereproject
edv
ert
ical
l
ydownwar don

13
t
hemeanseal
evel
bef
orebei
ngphot
ogr
aphed.Thus,
from Fi
gur
e

ka Ok f
Dat
um Scal
e=S
d= = =
KA0 OK H

wher
e,KandA0ar
ethepr
oject
ionsofkandAont
hedat
um pl
ane.

Av
erageScal
e(Sav)
Theaver
agescal
eofav er
ti
calphotographwhi
chisthatwhi
chwouldbeeff
ecti
ve
overtheenti
rephotographifallt hegroundpointswereproj
ectedver
ti
call
y
downwardorupwardonapl anerepresenti
ngt
heav er
ageel
evati
onofthet
err
ain
befor
ebei
ngphotographed.
f
Thus,S
av=
H-
hav
wher
e,hav=av
erageel
evat
ionoft
het
err
ain.

2.
7Det
ermi
nat
ionofScal
eofaphot
ogr
aph
Ift
wogr oundpointshavi
ngequalelevat
ionsappearint heimage,thescaleofthe
photogr
aphcanbedet erminedbycompar i
ngt hegr ounddi st
anceandt hei
r
corr
espondinglengthinthephoto.Forexampl e,i
flpifthelengthoftwogr ound
poi
nts whose cor r
esponding gr
ound distance is D,t hen the scal
e oft he
photogr
aphi sgi
venby :
lp
Sp=
d
Ift
hegrounddi
stancei
snotav
ail
abl
e,i
tsvaluecanbedeter
mi nedformthe
exi
sti
ngmapandt hent
hescal
eofthephotographcanbedeterminedasfol
lows:

Ma
pSc
alexPhotodi
sta
nce
Phot
oScal
e=
Mapdi
sta
nce

Inordert
of i
ndtheav er
agescaleofthephotograph,
scal
eforseveralknownlines
shouldbecomput edandtheav er
agescaleshouldbeadopted.Si
milarl
y,i
fthe
focall
engthofthelens,f
lyi
ngheightandtheaveragehei
ghtoftheterr
ainpoints
ofthephotographisknown,thescaleofthephotogr
aphisalsogi
venby :
f
Sp=
H-h

2.8.1Overl
ap
Mapcompi l
ati
onr
equiresthattheport
ionofthet errai
ntobeimagedi natleast
twodi f
fer
entphot
ographs.Thisissai
dt obecov eredinSter
eoandt hecommon
por t
ionoftheimagedar eaiscalledoverl
ap.Dur ingphotogr
aphymi ssi
on,an
airpl
ane shoul
dfli
es as good as possible hori
zontaland str
aightand t he

14
photographsshouldbet akenmor eorlessatr egularinterval
ssot hatmor ethan
halfoft heter
rainimagedi nthepr eviouspicturei sphot ographedagai n.The
porti
oni susuall
yexpr essedasaper cent
ageoft hear eacov eredbyasi ngl
e
photographandt heamountofov erl
apshouldbear ound55t o65per cent.The
overl
apofphot ographsinthedirect
ionoffli
ghtl i
nei scalledlongitudinaloverl
ap
orforwardoverl
apori ngeneral
term si
mpl yoverlap.
Theov er
lapoft
hear eabet
weentwoadjoi
ningf
li
ghtl
i
nesister
medaslater
al
over
laporsideov er
laporsi
mpl
ysidelap.Thesidel
apnormal
lyamount
st o
about15to35percent.

Reasonsf orOv erlap

Thefoll
owi ngar esomeoft hereasonsf orkeepi ngov erl
api nthephot ogr
aphs:
1.Tot iethedi fferentphot ographs
2.Tomi nimi zet hedi storti
onscausedbyt helensandbyt hetil
tandt herel
ief
displ acement .They ar e mor e pr onounced i nt he outerpar toft he
phot ographst hanneart hecent erofeachphot ograph.
3.Since,t hephot ographsar ereviewedst ereoscopicall
y;theov erl
apshoul d
bemor et han50per cent.
4.Anyphot ogr aphdi stort
edbyexcessi vet il
torbycl oudcanber ej
ect
ed
withoutt henecessi tyofanewphot ography.
5.Ift hef l
ightl inesar enotmai ntainedst raightandpar al
leldur i
ngf l
yi
ng
mi ssi on,thegapsbet weent woadj acentst ri
psmayoccursobykeepi ng
thesi delapatl east15%, t
hesegapscanbeav oi
ded.
6.If suf fi
cient ov erlap i s mai ntained, t he obj ects can be v i
ewed
ster eoscopi cal l
yfrom mor ethanoneangl e.
2.8.2Drif
tandCr ab
Iftheaircraftcouldnotst ayonthepredeterminedfl
ightl
i
ne,theresul
tofthe
phot ogr
aphswi llcausebyt hedr
ift
.Thatmeans,i ftheaircr
afti
ssetont he
cour sewithoutall
owingthewi ndvel
oci
ty,i
twi l
ldri
ftf
rom t
hecourse,asshown
i
nt hefigure.Excessivedr i
ftmustbeav oidednott ooccurseri
ousgapping
betweenadj acentfl
ightl
ines.

Fi
gur
e:Dr
if
t Cr
ab
Crabistheangleformedbetweenthefl
ightli
neandt heedgesofthephot ograph
i
nt hedirect
ionoffli
ghtasshowni nthef i
gure.Atthet i
meofexposur e,ifthe
focalpl
aneoft hecameraisnotsquaredwi t
ht hedirect
ionoffl
i
ght,thecr abis
occurr
edi nthephotogr
aphs.Thereisprovi
sioninthecamer asyst
em tor otate
thecamer aaboutt hev er
ti
calaxisoft hecamer amount .Crab need t o be
eli
minatedotherwi
seitr
educestheeff
ecti
vecov er
ageoft hephot
ograph.

15
2.
9ConceptofRel
i
efDi
spl
acementonaVer
ti
cal
Phot
ogr
aph

Since,thephotogr
aphisaper spect
iveproj
ecti
on,thegr oundreli
efi
sshowni n
perspecti
veont hephotograph.Soev erypointont hephot ogr
aphisdispl
aced
fr
om t heirtrue ort
hographic positi
on.Thi s di
splacement is cal
led r
eli
ef
di
splacement.

I
nf igure,Aisagr oundpoi ntofhav ingitselevati
on,habov edatum andA0isit
s
datum poi nt
.Ont hephot ograph,thei
rcor respondingpositi
onwi llbeaanda0
respectivel
y.So,from thef igur
e,i
ti sclearthatthepoi ntaisdi
splacedoutwar
d
from itsdatum position.Ther adialdi
st anceaa0ist herel
iefdi
splacementofA
which isr adialoutsidef rom thepr incipalpoint.Thepoi ntn hasnotbeen
displacedsinceitcoincideswi t
htheprincipalpointofthephotog
Oraph.
f
I
nf i
gurewehav e, a
AA0=h
PA1=R p
pa=r=r adicaldi
stanceofa
pa0=r0= r
a di
aldi
stanceofa0 a0
H
rel
i
efdisplacement,d=r -r
0

PA1=R A1
A
Then, f
rom t
hesi
mil
art
ri
angl
esOpaand
1
OAA,
wehav e, h
R
pa Op
=
AA1 OA1 P Dat
um A0

r f
Or
, =
R H-
h
Rf
r= -
--
--
--
--
--
--(
1)
H-h
Al
sofr
om thesimil
artr
iangl
es,
Opa0,
OPA0
pa Op
wehave, 0
=
P0A0 OP

Rf
or
,r = ---
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
(2)
0
H
Hence,
ther
eliefdi
spl
acementdi
sgi
venby
d=r-
r0

Rf Rf
or
,d= -
H-h H
Rfh
d= --
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(
3)
H(
H-h)

16
Subst
it
uti
ngt
hev
alueofRi
neq.(
3)wehav
e,

r(
H-h) f
h r
h
d= . = --
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(4)
f H(H-h) H

Al
so,
r f h rh
d= 0H. = 0 --
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(5)
f H( h) H-
H- h

Fr
om t
heequat
ionsabov
e,wecanconcl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

1.Therel
i
efdisplacementi
ncreaseast hedistancefrom t
heprincipalpoi ntincr
ease.
2.Therel
i
efdisplacementdecreaseswi ththeincreaseinthefl
yinghei ght .
3.Forpoi
ntsabov edat
um, t
her el
iefdisplacementispositi
vebeingr adicallyoutward.
4.Forpoi
ntsbelowdatum, t
her el
iefdispl
acementi snegativ
ebei ngradi call
yinward.
5.Therel
i
efdisplacementofthepoi ntverti
cal
lybelowtheexposur estat ioniszero.

2.
10Ti
l
tDi
spl
acement

Ifat er
r aini sphotographedt wice,oncewi ththecamer aaxisv erti
calandt hentheaxi s
ti
lt
edf rom t hev er
ti
calinsuchawayt hatbothtakenatt hesamef l
yingheightandwi t
ht he
samecamer a(samefocall engt
h) .Thesetwophot ographswi l
lmat chatt heaxi softhetil
t
only.Thei mageofanyot herpoi ntsont het i
lt
edphot ographwi llbedi splacedeither
outwardori nwardwit hrespectt oi t
scorrespondingposi t
iononav er
ticalphotograph.
Suchdi fferencecausedbyt het
iltistermedast i
ltdist
orti
onort hedi ff
erencei scall
edt he
ti
ltdispl acement .Inot herwor ds,t i
l
tdisplacementort i
ltdistorti
oni sdef inedast he
dif
ferencebet weenthedi stanceoft heimageofapoi ntont hetil
tedphot ographf r
om t he
i
socent reandt hedistanceoft hei mageoft hesamepoi ntont hephot ographf r
om t he
i
socent rei ftherehadbeennot i
l
t .

17
18
 UNI
T3:
STEREOSCOPY

3.
1St
ereoscopi
cVi
sion

I
ftwodi mensi
onalimagesofanor i
ginalsceneasseenf rom twodi ff
erentv i
ewpoi ntsare
off
eredt othet woeyes,undercertai
ncondi t
ions,at hreedimensionalimpr essioncanbe
obtained.Thi
sistermedas, "
Indir
ectStereoscopicvision"or"Arti
fi
cialBinocularVision"
.A
personcanseenat ural
lytheobjectinthreedimensionsduet ot hefusionofi magesi nthe
ret
inaoft heeyes.

St
ereoscopymeanst hephenomenonofsimult
aneousv
isi
onwi
tht
woey
esi
nwhi
cht
her
e
i
saclearpercept
ionofthevert
ical
dist
ance.

Accommodat i
onistof
ocuseyel
enstoacer
tai
ndi
stanceusual
lyfornor
malr eadi
ng.The
normalr
eadingaccommodat
ionv
aluei
s250mm whi
chi sal
sotermedasleastdist
anceof
di
sti
nctvi
sion.
b
Conv er
gencei sthepr ocessofconv erginglineofsi ghtsfrom the
twoey esont oasinglepoi nt
.Theangl emadebyt hel ineofsights
atthepoi ntiscall
edpar al
lacti
cangleorconv ergentangl e.Nearer θ1
theobjectlargertheangl eorf art
hertheobj ectsmal lert
heangl e B
willfor
m.I nthefigure,pointBi snearerthanpoi ntAwi threspect θ2
tot heeyes.Itisclearthatparall
acti
cangl eatB( θ1)islargerthan
thatatA( θ2)
.Lengt hbet weent hetwoey esi scal ledey ebase A
(i
nterpupil
arit
ydistance),whosenor mal val
uei s65mm.

3.
1.1Condi
ti
onsf
orSt
ereoscopi
cVi
sion

Thef
ollowi
ngcondit
ionsmustbeful
fi
ll
edforobtai
ningstereoscopi
cvisi
on:
-
1.Eachey emustseeonlyoneoft hetwoi magestakenf r
om twodiff
erentl
ocat
ions.
Boththeey
esmustreceiv
ethecorrespondi
ngimagessi mult
aneousl
y.

2.Thetwo di
rect
ionsofv i
siontothecor
respondi
ngi
magepoi
ntsmustatl
east
appr
oxi
matelyi
nter
secti
nspace.

3.The angl
e ofconv
ergence bet
ween t
he t
wo di
rect
ions ofvi
sion t
owar
ds t
he
cor
respondi
ngi
magepointsmustnotv
arywi
del
ybetweenthedi
ff
erenti
magepai
rs.

4.Thescal eoft het wopi ct

uresshoul dbeappr oxi
mat elythesame.I tmaybenot ed
thatst ereoscopicfusionofanov er
lappingpairofphot osinthesamest ri
pgener all
y
producesnodi f
fi
cul t
y,whilef usionofanov erl
appingpairofphot osoneeach
bel ongingtoei t
herofanadj oiningstripcausesdi ffi
cultyqui
teoften.Thereasoni s
thatt hescalev ari
ationsinast riparegener all
ynotmuchwher easindif
fer
entst r
ips
wi derscal ev ar
iati
onsgener all
yoccurundert hesecondi ti
onst hetwodi ssimil
ar
visions ar ef used into a composi te spat i
ali mage.An i n naturalvision the
i
mpr essionoft het wospat i
ali mages( offeredt otheey esbyt hetwopictures)are
19
 t
ransmit
ted t
ot he brai
n whi
ch thr
ough a compl
i
cat
ed psy
chol
ogi
calpr
ocess
i
nter
ceptst
hedif
ferentasonespat
ial
image.

Howev er,innat uralvi

sionthereishar dl
yanyef f
ortf oralmostal lpersonswitht wo
fairl
y heal thyey estof usethedi f
ferentimagest oget her.Bycl osingoneey eeach
onedoesseeani mageofi tsown.Butt hemomentoneopensbot heyesal most
spont aneousl yonl yonei magei sseen.Thi saspectdoesnotexi stinart i
fi
cial
binocularsv i
sion,asgener al
ly,untrai
nedper sons,whenf i
rstcal l
edupont ov i
ew,
stereoscopi call
yt wostereophot opairs,f
inditdi
fficulttodoso.Themer gi
ngoft he
twoi magesi snotnecessar il
yf ol
lowedbyaspat ialimpr essionaspsy chological
fact or
spl ayani mpor t
antroleinobt ai
ningthedept hper ception.Ev eninthecaseof
trained per sons,ev en aftert he mer ging oft wo i mages somet i
mes spat i
al
i
mpr essi
onmaynotbeper ceived,i
fanobser verdoesnotl ookf oritforinst
ance, his
mi ndisel sewher e.

5.I
tispr
efer
abl
ethatt
heshadowsi
nthei
magespoi
ntt
owar
dst
heobser
ver
.

3.
1.2Met
hodsofSt
ereoscopi
cVi
ewi
ngofI
magesPoi
nts

Accor
dingt
othi
sdir
ecti
onofv i
sionoft
heimagepai
rs,
ther
ear
ethr
eecat
egor
iesv
iz:
i
. Observat
ionwi
thcrossedeyeaxes

i
i
. Obser
vat
ionwi
thconv
ergentaxes

i
i
i. Obser
vat
ionwi
thpar
all
eley
eaxes

i
. Obser
vat
ionwi
thcr
ossedey
eaxes

Int hi
smet hod,thelefteyelooksatt hei mage
placedont heri
ghtsideandv ice-
versa.Thiscan
be accompl i
shed byt ryi
ng to dir
ectt he t
wo
100
visi
onst owardst hebridgeoft henose,whi le mm

tryi
ng to accommodat ef orsharpv i
sion.The
250
fusedi magewi l
lappearnear ertotheobser ver
thant het wodi mensionalimagespl ane.Since,
accommodat i
on and conv ergence are ofat
diff
erentdistancesunl i
keinthenaturalmanner ,
thismet hodwi l
lberatherti
resome.

Themet
hodhasanadv antagethatt
hedistancebet
weent
hecor
respondi
ngpoi
nt
i
magepai
rscanbel
argerthantheeyebase.

20
i
i
. Obser
vat
ionwi
thconv
ergentaxes

Inthi
smet hod,lefteyelooksatt hei magepl acedon
the left and v i
ce-v
ersa. Accommodat ion and
convergencear eatthesamedi stance,asinthenat ural 250
method.Inor dert oviewstereoscopical
ly
,thel eftand mm
ri
ghtimagesmustbesuper i
mposedi nsuchamanner
thatoneoft hetwoi magesi sv i
sibl
et ooneey eonl y
andtheot herisvisi
bletotheothereye.

i
i
i. Obser
vat
ionwi
thpar
all
eley
eaxes

Inthethir
dmet hod,
theeyesareconver
gesatinfi
nit
y 250mm
i
.e.theey eaxesareparall
el,y
etaccommodat edat
approxi
mat el
y 250mm,t he normaldist
ances for
clearvi
si
on.

Theprerequi
si
test
hateachey
emustbeonl
yonei
magef
ort
hebi
nocul
arv
isi
oncan
beachievedi
nsever
ali
mages.

a)NakedEyeFusion:-Thiscanbeachi
evedaf
tersomepract
ice,anaidapostcard
orsimi
lart
hingcanbepl acesi
nbetweentheleftandt
herightimages,i
norder
toachi
evetheseparat
ion.

b)Ster
eoscopes:-Apocketormirr
orster
eoscopeensuresthateachey eseesonl
y
oneimage.Thest r
ainwhichmaybefir
stinthenakedeyefusionisreducedver
y
muchifastereoscopeisusedasthesepar
ationi
seffect
edwithoutanyeffor
ton
thepar
toftheobser v
er.

I
napocketst er
eoscopeposit
ivelensesarepl acedbetweent heey esandt he
photossothatthephotosareplacedinthefocalplaneofthelenses.Therefore,
theraysfor
mt heimagespointsemergepar al
lelaft
erthei
rpassaget hr
ought he
l
ensesandt heeyescanadjustthemselvesforthesharpvisi
onatl ongdist
ance.
Thus,theaccommodat i
onandconv ergenceareforthesamedi stanceasint he
21
 nat
ural
visi
onandt
her
ebyt
hest
ereo-
visi
oni
sgr
eat
lyf
aci
l
itat
ed.

Posi
tiv
elensesoff ocallength250mm ar esaidtohaveamagnifyi
ngpowerunity
.
Magnifyi
ng powerofa l ens i s def
ined as 250/f(
mm) .Usual
lythe pocket
st
ereoscopeshav eamagni f
yingpowerof25t imes.Bindi
ngorfol
dingofphotos
i
s generally necessar
yi nt hi
st ype ofstereoscope.Some oft he pocket
st
ereoscopes hav ef i
xed i nter-ocul
ar dist
ances,whi l
e ot
hers have some
pr
ovisi
onf oradjusti
ngforindividualobserv
ers.

Mirr
orst ereoscopesar eusedf orgetti
ngst er
eoscopicv iew oflargerar eas.
Thesest ereoscopesenhancet heeyebasear ti
fi
cial
lythroughmi r
ror
sandpr ism
vi
af i
gurebel ow.Thel ensesusuallyhaveaf ocallengthof300mm r esult
ingin
0.8ti
mesmagni fi
cati
oni .
e.reducti
oni nthi
scase.Somemi rr
orst ereoscopes
havepr ovisi
onf oratt
achmentofbi nocul
arwi t
henl ar
gementof4t o8t i
mes.
Howev er,suchattachmentsreducet hefi
eldofview.

Ey
es

Pr
ism Mi
rr
or
Mi
rr
or

300

240

Phot
ogr
aph
s
Schemati
cdiagr
am ofMir
ror
Ster
eoscope

Dif
fer
encebetweenPocketandMirr
orStereoscope
Fol
lowingar
esomeoft hedif
fer
encesbetweenPocketandMi
rr
orSt
ereoscope:

S. PocketSt
ereoscope Mi
rr
orSt
ereoscope
No.

1. Smal
li
nsi
ze Lar
gei
nsi
ze

22
 2. Twoconvexl
ensar
ether
eto A pai
rsofconv
exl
ens,mi
rr
orsand
obser
vei
mage pr
ismsar
ether
etoobser
vei
mage.

3. Magni
fi
cat
ioni
nimagei
s2.
5 Magni
fi
cat
ioni
nimagei
s0.
8ti
mes
t
imesenl
argement r
educt
ion

4. Twophot
ogr
aphsar
etobe Phot
ogr
aphsar
ekeptdi
stantapar
t
kepti
nov
erl
appi
ngposi
ti
on

5. Sui
tabl
eforf
iel
dwor
k Sui
tabl
eforof
fi
cewor
k

6. Nobi
nocul
arsar
eused Bi
nocul
ars ar
e used t
o i
ncr
ease
magni
fi
cati
onofi
mage

c)Anagly
phorSepar at
ionbyColorFilt
ers:-Thelef
tandr i
ghtimagesareei
ther
pr
ojectedorpri
ntedi ntwodi
ff
erentcolors.Bypl
acingafi
lt
erofthesamecolor
i
nfrontofthecorrespondi
ngeye,eacheyegetsonlyonepi
ctur
e.

Thev isi
blespect rum i
ssupposedt ohav elightofwavelengthsr angi
ngfrom 400
to720( nm)nanomet ers.Howev er
,t her elat
ivesensit
ivit
yoft hehumaney e
variesinthisrangeasi ncreasi
ngupwar dsf or
m 400nm, reachingamaximum at
500mm andt hendecr easingtowards700nm.Thecol orf i
ltersusedar esuch
thatonef il
ter(blue-
green)cutsal
llightswi thwavelengthov er560nm andother
(orange-r
ed)cut sof fal
lli
ghtswithwav elengt hbel
ow560nm.Thesear eknown
asCompl ement aryColorFil
ter
s.

Ifaphot
ographisprintedinredonwhi t
epaper,i
tisinv
isi
blet
oaneyecovered
wit
har edfil
terandt hegreenproject
edphotographisseenasbl
ack.Thisis
knownastheSubtracti
v eMethod.

I
faphot ogr
aphi sproj
ectedinr ed,thepr oj
ecti
onisinvisibletot heey ecov ered
wit
hgr eenfi
lterandv i
ce-versa.Consequent lyinthi
smet hod,thei magesar e
observ
edbywear i
ngcor respondingcol oredspectaclesi .e.ther edpr ojected
i
mageobser vedthroughr edcoloredgl assandv i
ce-v
ersa.Thi sisknownast he
Addict
iveMethod.Mul ti
plexusest hispr i
ncipl
eofsepar at ionforst ereoscopic
vi
ewing.Thecol orblendingunderi dealcondit
ionspr oducesawhi t
eorl ess
whit
ei mageasi ntheor igi
nalscenedependi ngupont her ef
r act
ivi
tyoft he
obj
ects.

d)Pol ar
oid Fi
lters:-Lightwav esv i
brat
ei n al
lpossibleplanescont ai
ning the
directi
onofpr opagati
on.Bymeansoff il
ters,i
tispossi bl
et osepar at ethe
traverseswav esalongtwoaxesper pendi
culartoeachotherandt ot hedirect
ion
ofpr opagati
on.Afterproj
ecti
ont hr
oughapol ari
zati
onfil
ter
, t
hisli
ghtisinv i
sibl
e
tot heey ewear i
ngapol ar
izati
onfil
terwhosepl aneisperpendiculartot hatof
thef i
rstfi
lt
er.Thus,eacheyeseesonl ysome3. 0mot i
onpictures.Howev er,thi
s
23
 met
hodi
snotmuchusedi
nPhot
ogr
ammet
ry.

e)Opti
calTr
ains:-Compli
cat edopticaltr
ainsinvol
vi
ngsev
er all
enses,mir
ror
sand
pri
smsareusedf orstereov i
sioni nanaloguester
eor esti
tut
ioninst
rument
s
suchaswil
dA- 7,
A-8,KernPG-2,Zei ssC-8,etc.

3.
1.4.Ver
ti
cal
Aer
ial
Phot
os

St
ereoscopi
cv i
ewingofanover
lappi
ngpairsofver
ticalaeri
alphotosr
esult,
inthevi
ewi
ng
ofaspat i
almodelalsocall
edast ereo-
model.Howev er,thestereomodelseeni nan
or
dinar
ystereoscopei
sgener
all
ynotanexactlyr
eproductionoftheori
ginal
scene.

LetO1 andO2 bet woconsecut i

vecamer ast ationsina
verti
calaer ialphot ographyofast r
ip.Imagi neagi ant Ai
rBase
withaney ebaseequalt otheairbasedi stanceandt O1he O2
giantstandi ngov ert heterrainwithhi shei ghtequalt o
thef l
yi
nghei ghtoft hepl aneov erthet errainandhi s
eyessit uat edatO1 andO2.TheVi ew oft hist errai
nas
seenbyt hegi antundert hesecondi t
ionswi l
lbet he
origi
nalscene.Thet er
rai
nwi l
lbeseenbyhi m ata
reducedscal eandowi ngtot hegreatheightf rom wher e
hei sviewi ngt heterrainwi l
llookr atherf l
at t
ened.The
highest( heightr eckoned f rom theadj oining gr ound)
hil
lock t hatcoul d be di f
ferent
iated byhi m depends
upon hi si nter-
oculardi stance,hi s hei ghtand hi s
binocularact i
v i
ty.

Letusnow exami newhathappenswhent hesamephot osar estereoscopi call

yv i
ewed
underast er eoscopebynor malhumanbei ngs.Lett heey ebasebe' b'sot hati thast he
effectofmov i
ngO2 t oO2Iintheabov efigure.Thi shast heef fectofchangi ngt hestereo
modelscal ecompar edt othenatur
e,themodelscal ebei ngb/ Bwher e'b'i
st heey ebase
and' B'i
stheai rbase.I tmaybeseenf r
om t hefiguret hattheangl eofconv ergenceisnot
alt
eredbutt hecor r espondingdir
ect
ionofv isi
oni nter
sectatamuchnear erdistancefrom
theobser v
er .Ifb/ B=1/ n,t
hismeanst hatthe1model isplacedat1/ nthofthef l
yingheight
or'n'ti
mesnear er.Ther esulti
sthattheabi li
tytodi ff
erentialdepthisnowpl aced' n'ti
mes
nearer,itis' n'timesr educedinscalecompar est ot henat ure.Thecombi nedr esultof
theset wof act orsi sthatthedepthper ceptionisi ncreased' n'ti
mes.The' n'iscal l
edt he
specifi
cplast icit
y.

I
fthephotosar ev i
ewedi nthester
eoscopewi t
hbi nocularattachment,t
heenl ar
gement
hasanef f
ectofi ncreasi
ngt hedif
ferenceint heangl eofconv er
gencet owardsimage
poi
nts.Thi
sr esul
tsintheenhancementoft hedept hper cepti
onbyasmanyt i
mesast he
magnifi
cat
ion.Ift
hemagni fi
cati
onbev -ti
mest henthet otaldepthpercept
ionisincreased
n×vti
mesandt hequantit
ynvi scal
ledthetotalplasti
city.Thusitmaybeseent hatwhi l
e
24
thehor
izont
alscal
einthestereomodelisnotchanged,t
hev
ert
icalscal
eisexagger
ated
anditi
sknownasheightexaggerat
ion.

3.
2Par
all
ax

Theshi
fti
nani
mageduet
oashi
fti
nthepoi
ntofv
iewi
ster
medaspar
all
ax.

a
A B b

pm P’n P1 n’

LetAandBbet hei magesofapoi ntRonthegr

oundontwophotogr
aphstakenf
rom ai
r
stat
ionsSandS1r espect
ivel
y.S1aisdrawnpar
all
elt
oSAwhi
chinter
sect
sthephotoP1at
a.Thusbydefi
nit
ion,theparal
laxofthepoi
ntRis'
Ba'.

ThecomponentBa1paral
lel
totheprinci
pal
basel i
ne(whichisappr
oxi
matel
ythel
ineof
fl
i
ght)i
scall
ed'absol
utepar
all
ax'andtheothercomponentaa1,per
pendi
cul
artot
he
pri
nci
palpoi
ntbaseli
neiscall
ed'
wantofcor r
espondence'.
S1
S
3.2.1PARALLAXEQUATI ONS f
SandS1ar etwosuccessiveai
r A A
b
stati
onsfrom whichtwov er
ti
cal B’ p
a

photographsaretakenfr
om the P

samehei ghtHabov emeansea

l
ev el
. R
H

Theabsol ut
eParall
ax'p'
ofR, t
he
topofthechimney ,i
sgiv
enbyBa, d
wher eS1aisparall
elt
oSAR, R’

Si
mil
arl
yp1,
theabsol
utepar
all
axofR’
=B'
b

Theheightoft
hechimney'
dh'canbecal
cul
atedfrom thedi
ffer
encei
nabsol
utepar
all
ax.
I
ffisthefocal
lengt
hofthecamera,
thenbysimi
lartr
iangl
es:-
p D
=
f { H-(h+dh)}

Df
p=
{
H-( }
h+dh)

25
 ' Df
Si
mil
arl
y, p=
H-
h
dp=di
ff
erenceofpar
all
axbet
weenRandR'

=p-
'
p=Df [{
H-(
1
h+dh)
-
} H-
1
][ ]
h

dh
=Df
.
{H-(h+dh)}( h)
H- }
'
pdh
dp= -
--
--
---
--
--
---
--
--
--
(1)
H-h-dh

dp(
H-h)
dh= ' -
--
--
---
--
--
---
--
--
--
(2)
pdp

Thesear
ethef
undament
alpar
all
axequat
ions.

I
f'h'
and'
dh'
aresmal
lascompar
edwi
thH,
equat
ion(
1)r
educest
o,
'
pdh
dp= -
--
--
---
--
--
---
--
--
--
(1A)
H
Hdp
andequat
ion( od
2)t h=
p
3.
3Or
ient
ati
onofPai
rofPhot
ogr
aphs

Thestepsoforientat
ionofapairofphot
ographst
obeobser
vedundert
hest
ereoscope
areasfol
lows:
1.Mar kpr
incipalpoi
ntsofeachphotogr
aph

2.Tr
ansf
erpr
inci
pal
poi
ntsi
nbot
hthephot
ogr
aph

3.Dr
awpr
inci
pal
li
nei
neachphot
ogr
aphandext
endl
i
nei
nei
thersi
de

4.Dr
awast
rai
ghtl
i
neofabout70cm onadr
awi
ngpaper

5.Putleftphot
ographonthel
eftpar
toft
hedr
awi
ngpapersot
hatt
hepr
inci
pall
i
ne
coi
ncidewithl
inedrawnoni
t

6.Putr
ightphot
ogr
aphont
her
ightpar
tasi
nst
ep5

26
 7.Lookov
ert
hesephot
ogr
aphst
hroughmi
rr
orst
ereoscope

8.Sl
i
det
hephot
ogr
aphssot
hati
magesar
eseenf
rom bot
htheocul
ars

9.Sl
i
det
her
ightphot
ogr
aphssot
hatsamei
magescanbeseeni
nbot
htheocul
ars

10.
Thiscompl
etest
heor
ient
ati
onofphot
ogr
aphsandt
hedet
ail
swi
l
lbev
isi
blei
nthr
ee
dimensi
on

3.
4St
ereoRest
it
uti
on

Thej oiningli
neoft het wopr ojectioncent ersiscal
ledt he" base".I
nt hemodelt hi
sist he
"modelbase" ,whil
et hecorrespondi ngdi stanceinthet errainisoft encalled"thebasei n
theai r
".Theequi v
alentinthephot ogr aphswoul dbet hejoininglinesoft henadirpoint
s( n2'
-n1'inthel ef
timageandn2" -
n1"i nt her ightone),butusual l
yt heprincipalpointsareused
i
nst ead.The" photobase"isthust hedi stancebetweent hepr inci
palpoint(h1'orh2"
)andt he
place,wher etheterrainpoi
nti simaged, whichappearsont heprincipalpointofthepartner
i
mage( h2'
orh1")
.Thi sisoft
encal ledt he"transf
err
edpr i
ncipal point
".

StereoRest
it
uti
onistosett
hetwophotographsofaster
eoscopi
cpairsothateachisin
thesamer el
ati
veposi
ti
onasatt het
imeofex posur
ewithrespectt
ot heairbase.The
processcompri
sesoft
hefol
lowi
ngthr
eestages:
1.I
nnerOr
ient
ati
on

2.Rel
ati
veOr
ient
ati
on

3.Absol
uteOr
ient
ati
on

1.I
nnerOrient
ati
onisdefinedastoreconst
ructthebundleofraysofthephotogr
aphatthe
t
imeofexposur e.Thi
scanbeachi evedbycenteri
ngt hephotowit
hr espectt
hefi
ducial
marksandsett
ingtheprinci
pal
dist
anceoftheaeri
alcameraused.

2.Relati
veOrientati
onisdef inedast oreconstr
uctthesameperspectiveconditi
onbet weena
pai
rofphot ographst hatexistwhent hephotographsweretaken.Or ,t
or econstructthe
rel
ativ
eposi t
ionoftwoov erl
appingbundleofrays.Basedontheper spect
iveGeomet ry,i
fat
l
eastf i
vewel ldi
stri
butedcor respondi
ngr ay
sdoi nter
sectt
henallremainingcorresponding
ray
swi lli
ntersecteachot her.Hencewecoul dseet hreedi
mensionalmodelinspacewhi ch
i
ssi mil
artothet er
rain.

Inordertoi
ntersectthecorrespondingrays,weneedto
eli
minatey-
parall
axatwel ldist
ri
butedfivepointsoft
he
modeland thesi xthpointi salso used to checkt
he

27

3 4
 residualparall
ax.Thosesi xpoi
ntsarecall
edstandard
points.Atthisstage,themodelissimil
artotheterr
ain
buti t
sposition,or
ientat
ionandscal
emaybeunknown.
This can be achi eved by the pr
ocess of Absol
ute
Orientat
ion

3.AbsoluteOr i
entati
onistof i
x,ori
entandscal ethemodelwi threspect
tot het err
ain.Inordert oper f
orm this,weneedwel ldistr
ibuted
groundcont rolpoint
swhi chmustbei dent i
fi
edandmeasur edint he
model .Themi ni
mum numberofknowncoor dinat
esisx,yoft wo
pointsandzof3poi nts.Someaddi tionalpointsarepref er
redt o
checkt hequal it
yoft heabsol uteori
ent at
ion.Thel ocat
ionoft he
controlpointsarechosenatt hefol
lowingposi t
ionsofthemodel :the
t
h
4 poi ntisacheckpoi nt
.

Theorient
ati
onoft
hemodelwit
hrespecttothet
erraincompri
sesofsev
enparameter
s(1
Scal
e,3shi f
tsand3rot
ati
ons)
.Thepr ocessconsistsoftwostepscall
edscal
i
ngand
l
evel
ing.

Scal
ing:Themodelscal
eshoul
dbeeit
herenlar
georreducet
ofitthemodeltothecont
rol
poi
nts.Theonl
ywayofchangi
ngthemodelscal
eint
ochangetheinstr
umentbase.

Level
i
ng:Thel
evel
i
ngoft
hemodeli
scar
ri
edoutbyr
otat
ingt
hewhol
emodelar
oundt
wo
axes.

1)Thet
ransv
ersalt
il
tist
hecommonomegaΩ,whi
chr
otat
est
hemodelar
oundt
hef
li
ght
l
ine.

2)Ther
otat
ionar
oundt
heaxi
sper
pendi
cul
art
othef
li
ghtl
i
nei
sthecommonphi
,Φ.

Probabl
eMi st
akesinAbsol
uteOr
ientati
on
Thefoll
owingaresomeofthemistakesthatoccur
sdur
ingabsol
uteor
ient
ati
on:
• Mi si
denti
fi
cati
onofacontr
ol poi
nt

• Aner
rori
ncopy
ingel
evat
ionf
igur
es

• Ani
mper
fectpl
ott
ingofcont
rol
poi
nt

• Ani
mper
fectr
elat
iveor
ient
ati
on

• Aner
rori
nthesel
ect
ionofscal
econv
ersi
ongear
s
28
 • Aner
rori
nthecont
rol
itsel
f

• Ani
magedi
stor
ti
ont
osomeext
ent

UNI
T4:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOPHOTOGRAMMETRI
CEQUI
PMENT

4.
1Background
Phot
ogrammetri
cI nstr
umentsaredevel
opedandmanuf actur
edforthepr epar
ati
onof
maps.Dif
fer
entinst
rumentsweremadeonthebasisofdi
ff
erentcr
it
eri
a,suchas:pur
pose,
pr
eci
sion,ef
fi
ci
ency,technol
ogyand/
ormethod,
etc.

Pur
pose:The purpose may be for t
ransferr
ing poi
nts,v i
ewing the photographs,
compi
lat
ionofmaps,et
c.suchaspoi
ntt
ransferdevi
ce,st
ereoscope,st
ereopl
otter,
etc.
Preci
sion:Somei nstr
ument sweremadef ordi
ff
erentaccur
acyofendpr
oduct
s.Suchas
topogr
aphicplot
ter,preci
sionpl
ott
er,
etc.
Ef
fi
ciency
:Eff
ici
encyisoneofthekeyfact
orsformappi
ng,soev
eryt
imeat
temptwi
l
lbe
madet oi
ncr
easeeff
ici
encyoft
heinst
rument.
Technol
ogy and/orMet hod:Depending upon t
he technol
ogicaladvancementort he
methodt obeadopted,i
nstrumentwillbemanufact
uredaccordingl
ysuchasor t
hophoto
product
ionequi
pment,analyt
ical
plot
ter,
etc.

4.
2Poi
ntTr
ansf
erDev
ice
29
Thef i
rstpointtransf
erdevicewasaneedl e.Itwasusedt oprickthepoi ntsmanuall
yon
thephotographst operf
orm spati
alaeri
altri
angul
ati
on.Thenapoi ntmar kingandtr
ansfer
deviceequipmentwasasnapmar kerwhichwasfir
stconstr
uctedfirstt
imebyDongl eman
atITC,Delft.Thendiff
erentvar
iet
iesofpointmarkingandtransferdevicewasdev eloped
andusedbymanymappi ngorganizat
ions.

Wi
l
dpoi
ntt
ransf
erdev
ice Ker
npoi
ntt
ransf
erdev
ice

Thedev elopmentoft hepoi nttransferdev i

cewasr eali
zedbecauset heaccur acyofaer ial
tri
angulati
onresult
sdependst oal argeext entupont heaccuracywi t
hwhi cht hepoi ntsare
mar kedandt ransferred.Thei nstr
umentmanuf acturersappli
eddi fferentt echniquesf or
thei mprovementont hequal ityandt hepr ecisionoft hemar kedpoi nts.Someoft he
i
nstrument sareasf ollows:
a)Ker n,Aarau,Swi tzerl
andappl iedar ot ati
ngsapphi reneedlef ormar kingapoi ntin
PMG- 1andazoom sy st
em wasaddedi nPMG- 2.
b)Zei ssOberkochen, WestGer manyappl iedaheat edneedlef orpoi ntmar ki
ngi nPM-
1
c)Zei ssZena,EastGer manyappl iedal aserbeam f ormarkinginTRANSMARK
d)Wi ldHeerbrugg, Switzer
landappl iedanUl trasonicdevi
cet omar kapoi ntinPUG- 5.
Nowaday s,pointt ransf erandi magemat chingpr ocedurebydi gi
tali magepr ocessing
techniqueisavail
able.

Someofthemaj orfeaturesoft
hepoi
ntt
ransf
erdev
icear
easf
oll
ows:
 Phot oholder
 I mageviewingsy stem
 I magemat chingmechanism
 Poi ntdr
il
li
ngdev ice
4.
3StereoPlott
er

Themosti mpor tantpi eceofequi pmentusedi nmapmaki ngisofcour sethe

stereopl ot
ter.Stereopl ott
ersaredesi gnedf orthef or
mationofageomet ri
cal
modeloft het errai
nbyr econstructi
onoft hebundl esofpr oj
ectingray s.Thi s
reconst ruct
ioncanbeanal ogue,maki nguseofopt icalormechani calmeansor
analytical,by means ofon l i
ne di gi
talcomput ati
on.The st ereoplot
teri s an
i
nstrumentwi t
hwhi chanoper atorcanseeat hr
eedi mensionali
mageandbyusi ng
thef l
oat i
ngmar kprincipl
e(bymov i
ngt he"float
ingdot "andkeepingitperfectlyon
thegr ound)i tt
racepl animetr
icdetailanddr awcont oursandmakespotel evations.
30
Thev er
ti
calandhori
zontalinfor
mationcanbet r
ansmittedt
othecomputerf
or
st
orage.Movementsfrom theplott
ercanbetransmitt
edt ot
hepl
ott
ingt
ableby
meansofacoordi
natograph,pant
ograph,
orel
ectr
onical
ly.

Therear
efoll
owi
ngt hreebasi
ctypesofst
ereopl
ott
ers:
 Opti
calpr
ojecti
onplott
er:
Kelsh,
Multi
plex
,Balpl
ex,
Zei
ssDp1,
etc.

 Mechani
calproj
ecti
onpl ot
ter
:Galli
leoSantonimodelIII
,IV,andV,Zei
ss
Pl
anit
op,KernPG-2andPG-3,WildB-8SandWi l
dA-10,
etc.
 Opt
ical
-mechani
calproj
ecti
onplott
er:ThompsonWatt,
etc.

Ker
nPG- 2anal
ogst
ereopl
otter
. Ker
nPG-
3anal
og
st
ereopl
ott
er
Aarau,
Swi
tzer
land.

Wil
d A-10 anal
og st
ereopl
ott
er. Gal
i
leo Sant
onimodelI
IIanal
og
st
ereopl
ott
er.

31
 Gal
il
eoSantonimodel
IVanal
ogst
ereopl
ott
er&WildA-10analog
st
ereopl
ott
er.Not
eTVCameramountedonco-or
dinat
ograph.Phot
obyW.
May

I
nal lanaloguephot
ogrammet r
icinst
rumentstheperspect
ivebundl
eisphysi
cal
l
y
reconstr
uctedtoconstr
uctamodeloft heterr
ain.Physi
calr
econstr
uct
ionmaybe
optical
ormechanicalopt
ical
system.

4.3.1Opt ical Pr ojectionPl ot ter

Diaposi ti
v esofast ereopai rar epl acedi npr oj
ect orsandi l
lumi natedf rom abov e.
Thel ightr aysar epr ojectedt hrought hepr ojectorl ensesandi ntercept edbel owon
thepl aten.Thef unct i
onoft hev i
ewi ngsy st em ist oenabletheoper at ort ov iewt he
stereomodelt hr ee-dimensi onally.Thel eftey ev iewsonl ytheov er l
apar eaoft he
l
ef tphot owhi l
et her ightey eseesonl yt heov er l
apar eaoft her ightphot o.The
anagl yphicsy stem usesr edandbl ue-
gr eenf i
lt erst osepar atet hel eftandr ight
projector s.Abl ue-greenf i
lterispl acedov ert hesour ceoflightoft hel ef tpr ojector
andar edf i
lterov ert her i
ghtpr oject or
.Ift heoper atorwearsapai rofspect acles
placingabl ue- greenf i
lterov erhisl eftey eandr edov ertherightey e, hewi llbeabl e
toseet hest ereomodeli nt hreedi mensi ons.Anot hersystem i scal ledt hePPV
whi chusespol ar i
zingf i
lt
er sinst eadofcol oredl enses.Theopt icalt rainpl otter
createsat ruet hree-dimensi onalmodelf r
om whi chmeasur ement sar et aken,by
projectingt hel ightr aysopt i
callythr oughanopt ical trai
ntoabi nocul arf orv i
ewi ng.

Relativ
eor i
entat
ionisapr ocessinwhicht hetwoproj
ector
sar eori
ent
edsothat
di
aposi ti
ves havethe exactr el
ati
ve angularori
ent
ati
on to each ot
heri
nt he
projector
sthatthenegati
veshadi nthecamer aatt
heti
meofexposure.

Aft
errel
ati
veori
entati
on,thenextst
epistheabsol
uteori
ent
ati
on.Thisprocess
i
nvolv
esscali
ngandlevel
ingthemodelt
ogi
venhori
zont
alandver
ti
calcont
rol
.

4.
3.2Mechani
cal
Proj
ect
ionPl
ott
er

Themechani
cal
proj
ect
ionpl
ott
erut
il
izesanopt
ical
trai
ntov
iewt
hei
mageandt
he
32
 l
ensasper spect ivecent r
ewasr eplacedbyamechani calCardani csystem.The
system wasusedbyEr menegildoSant oniin1920i nwhichspacer odswer eused.
Sincethenot hermanuf acturer
sal sousedt hesamepr i
ncipl
e.Rel ati
veor i
entati
on
i
sdonemanual lyusingsi xbasi
cpr ojectormot i
ons:Kappa, Phi,Omega, X, Y,andZ.
Kappai sswi ng,Phii sti
p[i nlineoff light
]andOmegai sti
lt[acrosst helineof
fl
ight]
.Allst
er eoplottersusesthef loati
ngmar kpr inci
pletotracepl ani
met ri
cdet ai
l
and to draw cont oursand make spotel evations.The v erti
caland hor i
zontal
i
nf or
mat i
oncanbet ransmi t
tedtot hecomput erforstorage.Mov ement sf r
om the
pl
ot t
ercanbet ransmi t
tedt othepl otti
ngt ablebymeansofacoor dinatograph,
pantograph,orel ectr
onicall
y.

Themaj
orcomponentsoftheanaloguepl
ott
erar
easf ol
lows:
 Plat
eholderswit
htheprovi
sionofi
nneror
ient
ati
on
 Observ
ationsyst
em wit
hfloati
ngmarks

 Proj
ect i
onSy stem servesf ort her elati
veandabsol uteorient
ati
onofthe
i
magesandf orthegeomet rict ransformationf r
om theimaget othemodel
space.
 Provisi
onofcor r
ecti
ngdistortioncausedbydi ff
erentfactorssuchaseart
h
curvatur
e,lensdistor
ti
on,fil
m shr i
nkage, et
c.
 Controlagentsconsistoftracingt ableconnect edtospacer odsandpl
ott
ing
tabl
e
 Outputdev iceconnectedt ot racingt ablethroughpant ographwherethe
gearscanbeputi nfordif
ferentenl argementf actor
s.

4.
3.3Cat
egor
yofSt
ereopl
ott
er

Thest
ereopl
ottersarecat
egorizedi
ntothefol
lowing:
 Universalstereopl
ott
er:Inwhichbase-inandbase-outpr
ovi
sioni
sadopt
ed
mainl
ytof orm ast
ri
psuchasWi l
dA-10,Santoni
III
,et
c.

 Preci
sionst er
eoplot
ter
:Usedt operform aeri
alt
ri
angulat
ionaswellasto
produceaccuratedat
asuchasWi l
dA10, KernPG3,etc.
 Topographicalster
eo plot
ter
:Mai nlyto compile maps with moder
ate
accuracysuchasWi l
dB8-S,Ker
nPG- 2,etc.

4.
4Anal
yti
cal
Plot
ter

Theint
roducti
onoftheAnalyt
icalSter
eoplot
terwasper hapst
hegreat
estadv
anceev er
madeinPhot ogr
ammet r
y.Twocompani espr oducedtheplot
ter
s,whi
chmadet heol d
anal
ogsy st
em compl
etel
yobsolete.Wil
d-Heerbrugproducedt
heBC-2whichwasar eal
master
piece.Zei
ssproducedt
heC- 100,t
heP1I ntermap,andt
heP3andP33Pl anicomp

33
confi
gured wi
th super
imposi
ti
on.The anal
yti
calpl
ott
erf
orms nei
theran opt
icalnor
proj
ecti
onimage.

Basi call
yananal yt
icalpl ott
eri sast ereocompar atorwhichf ormsamat hemat i
calmodel .A
comput ersolv esor ientati
onel ement sanddr i
vest hecoordinatographf orplott
ing.Ther e
arenumer oussy stemsi nvolved,al lcomput erdriven.Oneut i
li
zesanaut omat i
cel ectronic
plottingtable.Mov ement si nt hest ereoscopi cmodelar et ransferredt othet able,and
recor dedinaf i
l
ei nt hecomput er.Theaut omat i
ct abl
eper formsamosti mpor tantand
variedt ask.Thecoor di
natogr aphnotonl ypl otst hemov ement sfrom t heplotter,since
ever ymov ementi sr ecordedi naf i
let hecomput ercontr
oll
eduni tcanr eplotanypor tionof
themapatanyscal e.Thi smakest heol dhandmet hodofscribingat hi
ngoft hepast .The
tablecanscr ibeanyar eaatani ncr edi
blyf astspeed.Obv i
ouslyt hecapabi l
it
iesoft he
automat i
c t able ar e mor e t han descr ibed her e. Anot her met hod ut il
izes t he
super impositionoft hecont our sov erthemodeli mageint hepl otter
.Notonl ycant he
electronictabl epl otal linformat i
ongat heredi nt hecomput er
,therear edr um pl otters
whichcanal sobeusedt oqui cklypl otaf i
nishedpr oductatanyscal e.

Wi
l
dBC-
2Anal
yti
cal
Plot
terwi
thaut
omat
ict
abl
e.Phot
obyW.May
o

Aut
omat
icscr
ibi
ngwi
tht
heaut
omat
icpl
ott
ingt
abl
eont
heBC-
2.

34
Oneoft heanal yt
icalpl
ott
ers,
modelAP/ C,isahi ghlyprecisephotogrammet ri
cinst
rument
usedasani nv esti
gati
ngorengineeri
ngtool,orbot h.Civ
ilengineer
sut i
l
izedtheinst
rument
i
nt he i
nterestofeconomy f orcr oss-
sectioning,r i
ght-of
-way determinati
on,contr
ol
extensi
on,topographicplot
s,andplanimet
ricplotsf orbothpreli
minaryandf i
nalsur
veys.

4.
4.1Funct
ionsofAnal
yti
cal
Plot
ter
Thef
unct
ionsofAnal
yti
cal
plot
terconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocess
4.I
nnerOr
ient
ati
on

5.Rel
ati
veOr
ient
ati
on

6.Absol
uteOr
ient
ati
on

4.InnerOr i
entati
onisdef i
nedast oreconstr
uctthebundl eofr aysofthephot ographatt he
timeofexposur e.Thiscanbeachi evedbycent eri
ngt hephot owithrespectt hefiducial
mar ksandset ti
ngthepr i
nci
paldi
stanceoft heaerialcamer aused.I nanalyti
calPlottert
his
process i s perf
ormed by enteri
ng t he pri
ncipaldi stance oft he camer a used and
coordinates oft he fuduci
almar ks.The machi ne coor dinates offiduci
almar ks are
measur ed.From thesetwosetsofcoor di
nate,t
hesy st
em wi llperf
orminneror i
entati
onand
willdi
splayr esi
dualerror.I
fiti
slesst hanpredef i
nedt olerancev al
ue,thi
scompl etesthe
i
nneror i
ent at
ion.

5.Relati
veOr i
entati
oni sdef i
nedastoreconstructther elativeposit
ionoftwoov er
lapping
bundleofr ays.In orderto per
for
med relativ
eor ientation,eli
minatey -
paral
laxatf ive
standardpointsofthemodelandt hesyst
em wi l
ldisplayresidualparal
laxatthesixt
hpoi nt
.
Iftheresi
dualpar al
l
axi sl
essthanorequaltohalfsizeoff l
oati
ngmar kwhichis20µm, the
resulti
saccept ed.Thent hesyst
em wil
ldistr
ibutetheer rorequallytoallt
hesixst andard
points.Otherwisethepr ocesshastober epeated.Att hisstage,the3D modelwi l
lbe
formed.

6.AbsoluteOrient
ationist ofix,ori
entandscalethemodelwi t
hr especttot heterr
ain.Inorder
toperformt hi
s,weneedcoor di
natesoffourwelldistri
butedgr oundcont rolpoints.When
thecommand i sgi ven to per form absol
uteor i
entati
on,t hesy st
em wi llaskt o enter
coordinat
esoft hecont r
olpoi nts.Whent hecoor dinatesar eent ered,thesy stem wi l
l
performedabsolut eorientationandwi lldi
spl
ayscal i
ngandl evelingerror.Toacceptt he
result
,tol
eranceforscalingi ssetatlessthanorequalt o0.2mm andf orleveli
ng,theheight
atthef our
thpointmustbe1/ 3ofthecontourinter
val.Iftheer rorexceedst hel i
mit,the
processistober epeated.

35
 Aftercompl et
ion ofabsol
ute or
ient
ation,anal
yti
calpl
otterisreadyt
o perf
orm aeri
al
tr
iangul
ati
on,compi l
ati
onofmaporor thoprhot
oproduct
ion.I
ncaseofaer
ialt
ri
angul
ati
on,
absolut
eorientat
ionneedsnott
obeper formed.

4.
5Rect
if
ier

Theaer ialnegat iv
ecoul dbepl acedi naphot ographicenlar
gerandcoul dproducean
i
mageofv ar
iousenlargementr ati
os.Wewi llfoll
ow thesi mplepr ocedurestot hef i
nal
sophisti
catedcomput eri
zedcapabi l
it
y.Accuratemeasur ementscannotbemadeona
photoenl argementasi tisaper specti
veproj
ection.Enlar
gerswer eimpr ovedtoal l
owf or
correct
ionofanegat i
vethatatt het i
meofexposur ehadt iportil
t.Nextcamet hesocal led
rect
ifyi
ngenl arger.Thef i
l
m pl aneandeaselcoul dbet il
tedbutt hepr oj
ectedresultwas
sti
lla per spect i
ve proj
ection,notuseabl ef ormeasur ements.Nextcame a gr eat
i
mpr ovementwhenWi l
d-Heer brugintr
oducedtheE- 4.Thissystem solvedtheSchei mpflug
conditi
onel ectroni
cal
ly,whichmustbeadher edt oiftheimagepl aneist i
lt
edwithr espect
totheobj ectplanewhenpr ojectingimagesthroughal ens.

Saltzmanphot
ogr
aphi
cenl
arger Wi
l
dE-
4rect
if
ying
enl
arger

TheSchei mpflugcondi ti
onst atest hatiftheimagepl ane,l enspl aneandt he
easelplanear enotpar alleltheseal lthreeplaneswi l
lint er
sectalongal inein
space.Ifthei mageandobj ectplanesar eparallel
,thent helenspl anemust
al
so bepar al
lel.Ift hegr ound i sper fectl
yf lat
,t hent heE- 4 enlar
gercan
producear ectifiedenl argementf rom whi chonecoul dobt ainfairl
yaccurate
measur ements.Af teral lthis,itisst i
llaper spectivepr ojecti
on,andwemust
solvethepr oblem ofr eli
efi nt het err
ainwhi chwi llcausescal echange.We
cannott akeameasur ementonanyper spectiv
eenl ar gementt hathast he
normalv ari
ati
onofgr oundr el
ief.Theenl argementwi l
lcont ainvar i
ousscales
asthegr oundel evationv aries.Scalei stheratioofadi st anceonaphot ograph
ormapt oi t
'scor respondi ngdi st
anceont hegr ound.So,r egardlessoft he
sophist
icati
on oft he r ectifyi
ng enl argeri tst il
lpr oduces a per specti
ve
36
pr
oject
ion.Tobeabl
etot
akemeasur
ement
swemusthav
eanor
thogr
aphi
c
pr
oject
ion!

Recti
fi
cationisthepr ocessofr ephotographinganaer ialphotographsot hat
theeffectsofti
ltareeli
mi nat
ed.Ther ecti
ficati
onofat ilt
edphot ographtaken
from an exposur e st
ati
on in space transf orm int
o an equi v
alentv ert
ical
photographtakenf r
om thesameexposur est ati
on.Ingeneral,t
heequi val
ent
photowi l
lbeei therenlargedorr educedf r
om i t
sor i
ginalscaleaspert he
requi
rement.

Ift
hephotographi stobemagni f
ied,thepri
ncipaldi
stanceoft
hephot
ogr
aphi
s
changedsothatt hefol
lowingequationissati
sfi
ed:
p=mf
Where,p=pr
incipaldist
anceofther ecti
fi
edimage
m=magni f
icat
ionfactor
f
=focallengthofthecamer alens

I
fm i
sgreat
erthanunity,
iti
ndicat
esenl
argementandi
fiti
slesst
hanuni
ty
t
heni
tindi
catesreduct
ionofthephot
ograph.

a n b
a n b

f q
F

o
p=∞

Fi
g:I
mageati
nfi
nit
y

B N A

Fi
g:Enl
argement

y
x

y
’ 37
x
d’
Ift
henegat
ivepl
aneisplacedbeyondthefocalpl
ane,atadi
stanceqfr
om t
he
l
ensandristhecor
respondingposit
ionoftheenl
argement
,thenthef
oll
owi
ng
condi
ti
onsmustbesati
sfiedsi
multaneousl
y:

1 1 1
+ = and r=mq
q r F
Theser el
ationsareforaverti
calphotogr
aph.Howev ert
hesecondit
ionsshoul d
sati
sfi
edf orat il
tedphotographtogetanenl ar
gedandf ocusedphot o.Letx
andx’ betheconj ugat
edistancesforthepoi
ntaandyandy ’betheconj ugate
dist
ancesf orpointb,t
henthef ol
l
owingrelat
ion(al
soknownasNewt on’sRule)
shouldbesat isf
ied:

1 1 1
+ '=
x x F

1 1 1
+ =
y y' F

Inanaut omati
cRect i
fi
er,itautomatical
lymaint
ainstheNewton;
sRul eandat
thesamet i
mef ul
fil
ledt heSchi emflugCondit
iontoproduceshar penlarge
i
mage.I nWi l
dE4Rect i
fi
er ,thelensequationi
saut omat
ical
lysat
isfi
edbya
Cam i nv
ersorandt heSchi emfl
ugcondi t
ionisautomati
call
yfulf
il
ledbyan
electr
oni
c simulat
or.Bot h oft hese elements ar
e equi
pped with synchro
systems.

4.
6Di
git
alPhot
ogr
ammet
ri
cWor
kSt
ati
on

38
 A digitalphotogrammet r
icwor kstat
ion isa di gi
talstereoplott
erbased on
di
gitalst ereo i
mages f or various photogrammet r
ic applicat
ions.Digit
al
Phot ogrammetry has reached a pr acti
caldegr ee.Mostofi t
st echni
cal
problems f orextract
ion ofterraini nf
ormation hav e been solved.Digit
al
photogr ammetri
c wor kst
ati
on i nvol
vei ntegrated hardwar e and software
systemsf orspatialdatacapture,analysis,storage,displayand outputof
softcopyimages.

Thewor kstati
onhast hecapabi l
iti
est o produceal lt ypesofconv entional
photogrammet ri
cpr oducts,suchasl argescal edi gi
talmappi ng,blackand
white/colorOrtho-imagemaki ng,ci t
y3Dmodelr ebuil
dinganddat aof3Dci ty
GISacqui ring/updat easwel last opr oducesomenew pr oducts,suchas
perspectivescenesandani matedl andscapesThesy stem hasf l
exibi
li
ty,ease-
of-use,andpr oducehi ghqualit
ypr oducts.
A DigitalPhot ogrammet ri
cWor kstati
on (DPW)compr isesoft hef oll
owing
component s:
 t hecomput ersystem supportedbycor respondingsof tware
 st ereoscopicdisplaydevice,
 3Dmeasur ementdev ice,
 I /Odev i
ce

Thewholeoperat
ionalsy
st em consist
soft
hef
oll
owi
ngmai
nni
nemodel
s.
Theyar
eorigi
nali
nformationcont r
ol,

 Ori
ginalInf
ormat i
onControl  Topographici
mport,
 Di
gitalimageorientat
ion,  Digit
alaer
ialt
ri
angul
ati
on,
 DEM extract
ion,  Ortho-i
magemaking
 Objectcoll
ecti
on,  3Dmodel rebui
ld
 Graphicedit
,
UNI
T5:
AERI
ALTRI
ANGULATI
ON

5.
1Def
ini
ti
on

Aerialtri
angul
ation( AT)i samet hodofpoi ntdeterminat
ionbyphot ogr
ammet ri
cmeans.I tconsistsofa
si
mul taneousmul ti
-stati
onsol utionoft heorientat
ionofabl ockofaeri
alphotogr
aphsandt hedeterminat
ion
oft heco- or
dinatesofsel ectedt er
rainpoi nts.Inmostoft hecases,theobtainedcoor di
natesoft he
tr
iangulati
on points ar er el
at ed t o nationalcoor di
nate system.The ol d def
init
ion ofAT was t he
photogrammet ri
c means bywhi ch we det ermine the minorcont r
olpointsrequired f
ort he absol
ute
ori
entationofmodel st obepl ottedorf ortheconv ent
ionalr
ect i
fi
cat
ionofsi
nglephotographs.

5.
2Pur
pose

Thedet erminat
ionoft hecoordinatesofpasspoi nt
s( usual
lycall
edmi norcontrolpoint
s)necessaryfor
plott
ingofthest er
eomodelorf orrectif
icationhasbeenoneoft hecruci
alproblems.Theest abl
i
shmentof
thesemi norcont rolpoi
ntsbyf i
eld surveyi susual
lyv eryexpensi
veand t i
meconsumi ng.Therefor
e,
determinat
ionoft hesepoint
scanbepr ovidedbyphotogrammet r
icaeri
altri
angulat
ion,whil
eusingonlya

39
l
i
mit
ednumberofgr
oundcont
rol
poi
ntsar
eusedt
osat
isf
ytheaccur
acyr
equi
rement
s.

Recentl
ythetechni
quesofAThasbeendr ast
ical
l
yimprovedsothati
tisappl
i
edinawi
derfi
eldofmappi
ng,
cadastr
e,engi
neeri
ngsurveys,geodet
icnetworkdensi
fi
cati
on,et
c.Someoftheadv
ant
agestoapplyATfor
deter
minati
onofcontrol
pointsareasfol
lows:
-

 Itiseconomicasi treducestheamountoff ieldwork

 Mostoft hewor kisdoneunderof f
iceenv ironment,t
hismini
mizi
ngdel
aysandhar
dshi
psduet
o
adv er
seweat herconditi
on.
 Accesst omuchoft hepropert
ywithi
napr ojectareaisnotr
equi
red
 Fieldsurveyi
ndi f
fi
cultareascanbemi ni
mi zed
 Theaccur acyrequir
ementi seasi
l
yachievabl e.

5.
3Pr
inci
pleofAer
ial
Tri
angul
ati
on

Thebasi cpri
ncipleofaer ialtr
iangulati
oni st ofor
m atf i
rstthebasicphotogrammet r
icunitwhi chwillbe
usedl at
ert
of i
tintot hegroundsy stem byadj ust
mentpr ocedurewit
hthehelpofsui t
ablydistr
ibut
edgr ound
controlpoi
nts.Thenumberofgr oundcont rolpoint
sdependsupont hemet hodofadj ustmentandmay
fur
therbereducedi fadditi
onalinformation( auxi
li
arydata)suchasflyi
ngheight
, cameraincli
nati
on,positi
on
ofexposurestati
on, etc.i
s/areused.Phot ogrammet r
icuniti
st hesmall
estuni
tusedasani nputdataforthe
adjustmentandt heyar ebundlesofr ays,modelsorst ri
ps.Theseunitscanbef or
medi nv ari
ousway sas
fol
lows:

 Bundles:f
rom platecoordi
nateordi
rect
ions
 Models:byrel
ativ
eor i
entat
ionint
heinst
rumentorbycomputat
ion
 Str
ips:byt
ransferofelementsofabsol
uteori
ent
ati
onint
heinstrumentorbycomput
ati
on

5.
4Hi
stor
ical
Dev
elopmentofAer
ial
Tri
angul
ati
on

TheideaofATst ar
tedin1930, howev
er,thepract
icalappl
i
cationst
art
edonlyin1935.Asment i
onedabove
blockadjustmentprocedurescanbeclassif
iedint
ot hr
eegroupsaccordi
ngtothesmall
estuni
t(Str
ip,
Model
orBundle).Thewordbl ockwasusedtoindicateasetofadjacentst
ri
pswiththepoi
ntsi
nthecommonar eas
i
.e.sideoverl
ap.

5.
4.1St
ri
pAdj
ust
ment

Themet hodwhichwasdev el
opedinthebegi
nni
ngwast hest r
iptri
angul
ati
onknownast heAeropolygon.
TheStri
pi sf
ormedbyrelat
iveori
ent
ati
onandthescaletransferfrom onemodeltothenextone.Thestri
p
for
mationisreal
i
zedintheinst
rument
.TheMulti
plexi
sacl assicalexampleofsuchaninst
rument.Lat
erso
cal
ledUniver
sali
nst
rumentswitht
heBase-
inandBase-outfaci
lit
ieswereused.

40
Aft
erstri
pformation,t
hestri
padjust
mentisneededinwhi
chgraphicaladj
ust
mentmet hodswereused.One
ofthestr
ipadjustmentswasthegraphi
calmethodofZARZYCKIthathasbeenwidel
yusedduringtheperiod
fr
om 1950t o1960.Iti
sasimpleinter
polat
ionmethodwher
e3cor rect
ionsur
facesar
eusedt ocorrectwhat
i
scalledstr
ipdeformati
oninx,yandzcoordinat
es.

5.
4.2I
.G.
N.Anal
ogueComput
er

TheInst
it
uteGeographi
queNati
onalinPari
sdev elopedaround1954t hefi
rstanaloguecomputerforbl
ock
hei
ghtadjust
ment.Thismethodbelongstothegr oupofmet hodswherethest r
ipisthesmall
estunit
.The
i
deabehindthismechani
calmet
hodwast herepresentat
ionofacorrecti
onsurf
aceofeachst r
ipbyaplasti
c
surf
acewhichcoul
dbedef or
medaccordi
ngtot heabsolutecorr
ecti
onsofcontrolandrel
ati
vecorr
ecti
onsat
ti
epoint
s.

5.
4.5I
.T.
C.Jer
ieAnal
ogueComput
er

In 1958,the two I.T.

C.Jer ie analogue computer
sf orplanimetri
c and heightblock adj
ustmentwer e
i
ntroduced.Thecomput erf orplani
met r
yisbasedont heideaofstereotemplatehoweverasectionofabout
2model sisthemi nimum uni t
.Thismet hodall
owsal eastsquaressoluti
onduet otheuti
li
zati
onofspr i
ngs
whichtendt okeepmi nimum t ensi
on.Fr om apract
icalpoi
ntofv i
ewt hi
smet hodgivessimil
araccuracyto
equival
enttoanaly
ticalprocedures.

TheI.T.
C.Jer
ieAnal
oguecomputerforhei
ghtadj
ustmenti
sanimprovementofI
.G.
N.met
hod.Thesmal
lest
unitofadj
ust
mentisastri
p.Foreachstri
pacorrect
ionsur
facei
srepresent
edbyanel
ast
icrodandcr
oss
ri
bs.

Absol
utecorr
ecti
onsatcontrolpoi
ntsandr
elat
ivecor
rect
ionsar
eint
roducedint
hemechani
caladj
ust
ment
wit
hthehelpofspri
ngswhichall
owsomesortofaleastsquar
esadj
ustment.

5.
5Pr
oject
iveRel ationsbet weenPhot oandGr oundCoordi
nat
es
x,y,z: bundl esystem
X,Y, Z:groundsy st
em
x0,
y 0,z0a ndω, φandχ: camer aori
entat
ionpar
ameters
c:pr incipal di
stance
xp,
y p,
-c:I magepoi ntcoordinatesi
nbundlesyst
em
Xp,Yp,Zp: t
errai
npoi ntcoordinatei
ngroundsyst
em
λp: pointscal efactorforp

41
 z
y
O
(
x0,
y0,
z0andω,
φ,χ) x

p (
xp,
yp,
-
c)
Z

Y
P(
Xp,
Yp,
Zp)
R
X

Di
agr
am f
orRel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenPhot
oandGr
ound

Themat
hemat
ical
rel
ati
onf
ort
heset
wosy
stemsi
sasf
oll
ows:

Xp xp x0
Yp = λp R y
p + y0
Zp -
c z0

Theaboverel
ati
onshipisval
idforatheor
eti
calray(
astrai
ghtl
ine)passi
ngthroughthepr
oject
ioncent
reO,
i
magepoi ntpandthet er
rai
npointP.Iti
sobv i
ousthatλ(poi
ntscalefact
or)changesfr
om pointtopoi
nt
accor
dingtot
err
ainrel
iefandphotot
il
t.

5.
6Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofMet
hodsofAer
ial
Tri
angul
ati
on

Accordi
ngtothet
ypeofmeasur
ements,t
hemet hodofaeri
alt
ri
angulati
onisclassif
iedint
oradi
alandspat
ial
tr
iangul
ati
on.I
nthefir
stmet
hod,t
hemeasur ementsofthehori
zontalanglesaremadei nthepl
aneofthe
photogr
aphs.Noexpensi
vei
nst
rumentsarenecessar
y.However,onlyx,ycoordinatesoftheminorcont
rol
point
scanbeobtai
ned.

Inspati
altr
iangul
ati
on,aspat
ialmodelofthet
errai
nisreconstr
uct
edeit
heri
ntheplot
ti
ngmachineorby
computati
onusingtheplat
ecoordi
nates.Thet
hreecoor
dinatesx,yandhoftheminorcont
rolpoi
ntsar
e
obtai
ned.

5.
6.1Radi
alLi
neMet
hod

Radiall
inemet hod issomet i
mest ermed asRadi alt ri
angul ati
on.I tisbased on t hef actt hatangles
det
er mi
ned fr
om t he aer i
alphot ogr aphsusi ng the pr incipalpoi ntasr adi
alcent re correspond tot he
hori
zont
algroundangl es.Thi sisv al i
donl yf orv er
ticalornearv erti
calphotographsandf l
att er
rain.So,t
his
methodisbasedont hef ollowingper spectivespr oper t
iesofav er t
icalornearver t
ical
photogr aph:
 The di splacement si n a phot ograph due t or eli
efand t il
tare wit hi
nt he limits ofgr aphi
cal
measurement sradialfrom t hepr i
ncipal pointoft hephot ograph.
 Thei magesneart hepr incipalpoi ntar enear lyfreef rom er r
orduet otil
tandar eshowni ntheirt
rue
ort
hographicposi ti
onsr egardlessofr eli
ef.
 Theposi t
ionofapoi nti ncludedi npr operlyov erlappingphot ogr
aphsmaybel ocat edont hemap
wherethreer aysfrom t hreeknownpoi nt
sint ersect.

42
Inthi
smet hodami norcontr
olplotispreparedwhi
chisagr aphi
calconstr
uctiononast r
ipofKodatr
ace
whichresult
sinplot
ti
ngofthecorrectr
elati
veposi
ti
onsofprinci
palpoi
nts,minorcontr
olpoi
ntsandlat
eral
contr
olpointsofaser
iesofphot
ographsofthestr
ipatanunknownbutunifor
m scale.

Thent hescal
i
ngoft heminorcont r
olplotiscarr
iedoutwiththehel
pofgr oundcontr
olpointona
combinati
onpl
ot.Af
terscali
ng,al
ltheminorcontr
olpoi
ntsandl
ater
alpoi
ntsar
eadjust
edl
inear
ly,r
esul
ti
ng
al
lthepoint
softheminorcontr
olpoint
swil
l bei
ntheknownscal
e.

5.
6.2Sl
ott
edTempl
ateMet
hod

Eachphotogr
aphinthebl ockisrepr
esentedbyatemplat
emadef r
om cardboardorst
if
fplast
ic.The
di
rect
ionf
rom ther
adi
alcentret
otheminorcont
rol
poi
ntsar
ereal
i
zedbysl
otspunchedi
nthetempl
ate.

. . . . . . . .
11 21 11 21 31 21 31 41

. . . . . . . .
1 2 1 2 2 3
. . 3 . . 4 . .
12 22 . .

o
o

Fi
g:Sl
ott
edTempl
ate

The det ermi

nation oft he planimetr
ic coordi
nates ofpointsi s achieved mechanicall
ybya layoutof
overl
appi ngtempl ates.Theposi ti
onofeachpoi ntisdeter
mi nedbyintersectionoftwoormor esl
ots.Att
he
i
ntersectionast udi sinserted.Thewhol eassembl yisfit
tedt opreplottedgroundcont r
olpoi
ntsandthe
posit
ionoft hemi norcont rolpoi
ntsaremar kedwi t
ht hehelpofaneedl einsert
edt hr
oughthehol
esofthe
studs.Thecoor dinatesoft hepr i
ckedpointsarethenreadont hebasemap, ifnecessar
y.
5.
6.3St ereoTempl ateMet hod

Thisisamechanicalpl
ani
met r
icblockadj
ust
mentmethod.Fr
om areasonabl
ylevel
edmodelt
hepl
animetr
ic
posit
ionofatleastf
ourcornerti
epointsar
emarkedonasheet.Fr
om theplott
edpoint
stwotempl
atesare
preparedasshownbelow:

43
Onecouldnoti
cethattheradiati
oncentr
esinthetwot emplat
esar edi
agonall
ylocated.Thecombi
nationof
bothtempl
atesiscall
edast ereotemplat
ewhi chall
owst hechangeofscale,rotat
ionandtwoshift
s,thus
al
lowi
ngamechani call
inearconformaltransfor
mationinplanimetr
y.Thisf acil
i
tatesthecor
recti
onof
absol
uteor
ient
ati
onatamodel inpl
animetr
y.Thesmal l
estuni
tinthi
smethodist hemodel.

5.
7Spat
ial
Tri
angul
ati
on

Accordi
ngtothet y
peofcoor dinat
esmeasur
edandt
hei
nst
rumentusedt
hespat
ial
tri
angul
ati
onmet
hodcan
begroupedintothefol
lowing:
 Aer opolygonTriangul
ation
 I ndependentModel Tri
angulat
ion
 Anal yti
calTri
angulati
on

5.
7.1Aer
opol
ygonTr
iangul
ati
on

Thei
deaofaeropolygonist oachievethr
eedi mensi
onal
stri
pf or
mationineit
herofthefol
lowi
ngways:
1. Inst
rument al:Usi ngtheMul tipl
exorsocal l
ed“Uni versalInst
ruments”suchast heWildA7,
SantoniII
I,etc.Thi stypeofi nstr
umentisnol ongerproducedandt heaeropoly
gonmet hodis
almostabandoned.
2. Semi -
analyti
cal:Model sareindependent
lymeasuredi nster
eoplotter
sandconnectedtoforma
stri
pbyananal y
ticalpr
ocedure.
3. Analyti
cal:From compar atormeasurementsphoto,modelandst ri
pcoordi
natesarecomputedby
analyt
icalprocedures.

I
ncaseofi nstrumentalmet hod,i tisassumedt hattwosuccessivemodel sinast r
iphaveacommon
proj
ect
or.Soi fthecommonpr ojectorisfi
xedandt herel
ati
veori
entati
oniscarri
edoutusingonlyel
ements
ofthenewpr oject
or,thesuccessivemodeswi llbeproperl
yori
entedwithrespectoteachother
.Byapply
ing
thi
sprocedure,wegetal lmodelsi nthestr
ipor
ientedinauniqueway .Obv
iously,
theinstr
umentusedinthi
s
methodshouldhav ethesixorientati
onelements.
44
5.
7.2I
ndependentModel
Tri
angul
ati
on

Inthismet hod,onl
yr el
ati
veori
entat
ionisperfor
medint heinstr
ument .Eachmodeli smeasur edinan
i
ndependentcoor di
nate syst
em.In orderto achi
eve a st
ablethree dimensionalconnection bet
ween
successivemodelsinastri
p,i
neachofthem t
hreecommonpoi nt
sfarapar tandnotonastraightl
ineshoul
d
beav ai
labl
e.Ingeneral
,nosuchthr
eepointscanbefoundintheoverlap,oneofthesepointsshouldbethe
proj
ecti
oncent r
e.

Ifonlythet hr
eemi norcontrolpoi
ntsareused,t heazi
mut h,Ω,λandt hethreeshi
ft
swi l
lbeaccurat
ely
comput edbuttheconnectioninФwoul dbeweak.Sopr ojecti
oncentr
eisconsider
edasamodelpointand
theref
oretwomodel spointsandtheper specti
vecentr
ewi llbeusedfortheconnecti
on.Theproject
ion
centre coordi
nat
es cannotbe measur ed dir
ectlyi
nt he instr
ument.Therefor
e speci
almethods for
determinat
ionoftheproj
ectioncent
recoordinat
eshavebeendev el
oped.

Byconnectingthemodelsnumerical
l
y,str
ipscanbef or
medandt henadjusted.Eachmodelmayal sobe
di
rectl
yent er
ed i
ntothe adj
ustmentas independentmodelas a unit
.I n gener
alindependentmodel
tr
iangul
ati
oniscarr
iedoutonanal
ogueinst
rumentwhichhaspossi
bil
i
tyforrecordi
ngX,Y,Zcoordinat
es.

5.
7.3Anal
yti
cal
Tri
angul
ati
on

I
nanalyt
icalmet hods,t heinst
rumentworkisl i
mitedtomeasur ementsofX,Ycoor di
natesofthepoint
sin
t
hephotoplanewi tht hehelpofMonoorSt ereoCompar at
ors.Thecompar atorcoor
dinat
esaretransf
ormed
i
ntophotosy stem usi ngf i
duci
almarksandt hencorrect
edf orotherdistort
ionssuchasl ensdist
ort
ion,
r
efr
act
ion,fi
lm shrinkage, et
c.Thesecoor
dinatesarethendirect
lyusedfortheadjust
ment.

Compar
atorcoor
dinat
e Phot
ocoor
dinat
e

Note:I
tshoul
dbenotedthatindependentmodelt
ri
angulat
ioncanal
sobecar
ri
edoutwit
hUni v
ersal
i
nstrument
sandtheUniv
ersal i
nstr
ument sandpr
eci
sionplot
ter
scanbeusedascomparat
ors.
5.
8PhasesofAerial
Tri
angulati
on

Thef
oll
owingphasesofaer i
alTr
iangulat
ionar
easf
oll
ows:
1. Pl
anning
2. Prepar
ation
3. Dataacquisi
ti
on(Executi
on)
4. Dataprocessi
ng(Adjust
ment )

5.
8.1 Pl
anni
ng

Thi
sphasei ncludesthef ol
lowingsteps:
 Ext ractionofrequirementsofprecisi
onfr
om thegeneralpl
an
 Col lectionofav ail
ableinf
ormationsuchasar ea,l
ocati
on,exi
sti
ngcontr
olpoints,i
nst
rumentt
obe
used, etc.
 Pl anningofexecut ionofthet r
iangul
ati
on(i
dent i
fi
cat
ionofcontrolpoi
nts,sel
ecti
onofti
epoint
s,
preparat i
onofindexmap, etc.
 Sel ectionoftri
angul at
ionmethodaccordingt
oav ail
abl
einst
rument

45
  Sel
ect
ionofcomput
ati
onal
met
hodaccor
dingt
oav
ail
abl
epr
ogr
am

5.
8.2 Pr
epar
ati
on

Eacht
ri
angulat
ionprocedurerequir
espreparati
on.Thisphaseofpr eparati
onincludesthefol
lowingsteps:
 Thepr eparati
onofindexmapshowi ngt heapproximatel ocati
onofflightli
nes,photogr
aphsandal l
poi
ntsofinter
est.Theindexmapi susedf oradmi ni
str
ativepurposes
 Thesel ect
ion,i
denti
fi
cationandmar ki
ngofpoi ntsofinterestonpaperpr i
ntsanddiaposi
tives
 Thecal i
brati
onofinstr
ument s,
preparati
onofr ecordi
ngf orms,etc.

5.
8.3 Dat
aacqui
sit
ion(
Execut
ion)

Thi
sphasei
ncludesthef oll
owingsteps:
 Inst
rumentalproceduresandmeasur ement
s
 Checkstodet ectandel i
minategr
osserr
ors
 Prel
iminaryt
ransf ormati
onstoobtai
nprovi
si
onal
inputdat
aforf
inal
adj
ust
ment

Theoutputoft
hisphasear
ebasicphot
ogrammetr
icuni
tsr
epr
esent
edmechani
cal
l
yornumer
ical
l
ybyal
i
st
ofcoor
dinat
esofpoint
sofi
nter
estorgr
aphical
l
y

5.
8.4 Dat
apr
ocessi
ng(
Adj
ust
ment
)

Theadjust
mentcomprisesfi
tt
ingofbasi
cphot
ogr
ammet
ri
cuni
tsr
elat
ivet
oeachot
herandal
loft
hem
toget
heri
ntot
hegroundframework.

Theexi
sti
ngbl ockadjustmentpr ogrammesmaybecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreegr
oupsaccor
dingt
othemeanswi
th
whi
chtheyareexecut ed:
i. Pol ynomi aladjust
ment
i
i. I ndependentmodel adjustment
ii
i. Bundl eadjustment

Obviously,
forgraphi
calandmechani caladjust mentt hebasi cphot ogrammet ri
cunitsmustber epresentedi n
agr aphi
calandamechani calwayr espectively.Howev er,thei nputf ornumer icaladjust
menti s,inmost
cases,list
s ofcoor di
nates defi
ning the uni ts.Ar ound 1960 t he av ai
l
abi l
i
tyof“ el
ectr
onic comput ers”
encouragedmanyphot ogrammet ri
stst odev elopnumer icalmet hodsofaer ialtri
angulati
on.I
nthebegi nning,
themai npr obl
em washandl i
ngandsol vingl argeset sofequat ionsi nal argenumber sofunknowns.
Howev er,t
heysucceededt oimprov ethenumer icalprocedur esofbl ockadj ustmentandt hecorresponding
soft
war etoextendtheblockswithmor ethan1000phot ost hatcanbeef fi
cientl
yadjusted.
5.8.
5.1 PolynomialAdj
ustment

Programmesf orpolynomi aladjustmentr equir

est r
ipcoordi
nat esasi nputasthestr
ipisusual
lythesmallest
unitandthemostpopul arandwi del
yusedi npr acti
cef ort hi
sadj ustmentisSchut’sprogramme.The
formati
onofthest ri
psmaybedone3di fferentwaysasf oll
ows:
1) Instrumental:Usi ngthesocal l
ed“Uni versalI
nst r
ument s”suchast heWi l
dA7,Sant oniI
II
,etc.
Thistypeofi nstrumentisnol ongerpr oducedandt heaer opolygonmethodisalmostabandoned.
2) Semi -analyt
ical:Model sar eindependentlymeasur edinst ereoplott
ersandconnectedtoforma
str
ipbyananal yticalpr
ocedure.
3) Anal yt
ical:From compar atormeasur ementsphot o,modelandst ri
pcoordinat
esarecomput edby
analyti
calprocedur es.

46
Themainprobl
em int
hismethodofadjust
mentistofi
ndthemostsui
tabl
emathemat i
calf
unct
iont
oadj
ust
whati
scal
ledStri
pAdjust
ment y2ndor3rdor
.Usual
l derpol
ynomi
alsar
eusedinpract
ice.

Thef
oll
owingi
sanexampleofsuchpolynomi
als:
ΔX=a0+a1x– b1y+a2x2-2b2xy
ΔY=b0+b1x+a1y+b2x2+2a2x y

ΔZ=c0+c1x+c2x2+c3y+c4xy

Pol
ynomialadj
ust
mentisinfer
iori
ncompari
sonwi t
hbundleandi
ndependentmodelmethods.Thi
si snot
onl
yval
idfrom at
heor
eti
calpoi
ntofvi
ewbutpract
icehasconf
ir
medthatwit
htheexcept
ionofspeci
alcases.

I
tisant
ici
pat
edthatpolynomi
albl
ockadjust
mentwil
lbecomelesspopul
arandwi
l
lber
epl
acedgr
adual
l
yby
r
igor
ousmethods,suchasthei
ndependentmodel
orbundleadj
ust
ment

5.
8.5.
2IndependentModel
Adj
ust
ment

Inthismethod,themodeli susual
l
ythesmal l
estunitofadj
ustment.Theouterorient
ationparametersof
eachmodelhav et obedet ermi
nedsucht hatthebestfiti
sachievedatcontrolandt het i
epoint
s.The
adjust
mentprocedurerequir
esmodelcoordi
natesasinput
.Stut
tgar
tprogrammePAT- M 4- 3,
whichbelongs
tothisgr
oup,hasat t
ainedwidepopul
ari
tyandi susednowaday si
nmanyphot ogrammet ri
corgani
zations.
Nowaday sdiff
erentversi
onofsoft
wareforadj
ustmentareavai
labl
einthemarket.

Fr
om atheoreti
calpointofv i
ew,t
heassumpt i
onthatthemodelsar
eint
ernal
l
yer
rorf
reei
snott
hatr
igor
ous.
I
ndependentmodel adjust
mentmaybeappl i
edin3diff
erentway
sasfol
lows:
1. Adjustmenti nplani
metryonl
y: M-4
2. Thr eedi
mensi onaladj
ustment: M-7
3. Alternat
ingplanandheightadjust
ment:M- 4-
3

TheM-
4-3isadj
ustmentisratherpopularmaybeduetothef
oll
owingreasons:
1) I
fneededthismet hodcanbeappli
edonl
yinpl
animetri
cadjust
mente.
g.Cadast
ralsur
vey
2) I
ttakesabouthalfofthecomputat
iont
imeneededfortheM-7whil
egi
vingi
denti
calaccur
acy
.

47
ThePr
oject
ionCent
re

In bot h M-7 and M-4-3i tis essent i

alto use t
he proj
ect
ion cent
res as modelpoints ot
herwi
se the
deter minati
onofΦwi llbeimpossi ble.Ift
hemodelsareanalyti
cal
lycomputedfrom phot
ocoor di
nat
es,the
coor dinatesoftheprojecti
oncent resar eal
socomput ed.Thedeterminat
ionofproject
ioncoordi
natesin
stereopl ott
ersdoesr
equi r
especial measurements.

Di
agr
am f
orPr
oject
ionCent
re

5.
8.5.
3 Bundl
eAdj
ust
ment

Oneoft hepopularandsuccessfulmethodsofblockadjust
mentmethodinBundlemethodwasslott
ed
template.However,iti
sappli
edonlyforpl
ani
metry
.Itisperf
ormedmechani
cal
lyandit
saccuracyi
sli
mit
ed
byt hegraphi
calaccuracy
.ThesuccessoftheSlot
tedTemplatewasduetothepossi
bil
i
tyofhandl
i
nglar
ge
blockswi t
hrel
ati
velysmall
ernumberofcontr
olpoi
nts.

Bundleadj
ustmentpr
ogr ammeneedst hephotocoor di
nat
esastheinput.TheprogrammeofD.Browni sone
ofthemostknowni nt hisgroup.Sev eralprogr
ammesar edevel
opedi nf ew academicandproducti
on
organi
zati
ons.Inpri
nciple,t
hissy st
em r equi
rest helar
gestcomputermemor yandi ncl
udest
hel argest
numberofmat hemat
icaloperat
ions,whileforpoly
nomialadj
ustmenttheserequir
ement sar
eataminimum.

48
Asmentionedbefor
et hi
smet hodofadjust
mentisconsi
der
edtobefrom atheor
eticalpoi
ntofvi
ew the
mostaccurat
eone.Thereasonsmaybest at
edasfol
l
ows:
 Thecol i
neari
tyconditi
onusedi nthebundl
eadjust
mentrepr
esentt
heact ualphysi
calsi
tuat
ion
wit
houtseri
ousapproxi
mat i
on
Xp-x0 xp
Yp-Y0 =λp R yp
Zp-Z0 -c

Wher
e,Ri
sanOr
thogonal
Rot
ati
onal
Mat
ri
x.

Thei
nverseofthi
srel
ati
oni
sasf
oll
ows:
xp Xp-x0 -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--(1)
yp =1/λp RT Yp-y0 -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
---
-(2)
-c Zp-z0 -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
---
-(3)

Ther
elat
ioni
shav
ing3equat
ionsi
na3di
mensi
onal
space.

By,div
idingequati
ons1and2by3wegett hefol
l
owing2equat
ionswhi
chr
epr
esentast
rai
ghtl
i
nei
na3
di
mensi onalspaceandnoti
cethatscal
efact
orisel
imi
nated.
xp a1(Xp–x0)+a4(
Yp–y0)+a7(Zp–z0)
=
-
c a3(Xp–x0)+a6(
Yp–y0)+a9(Zp–z0)

y
p a2(
Xp–x0)+a5(
Yp–y
0)+a8(Zp–z0)
=
-
c a3(
Xp–x0)+a6(
Yp–y
0)+a9(Zp–z0)

Eachl
i
ghtr ayisassumedt obeastrai
ghtl
inepassi
ngthroughP(X,
Y,Z),O(x0,y
0,z0)andp(x,
y ,
-c)
.
 Thecompar at
orsusedtomeasurethephotoi
magecoor di
nateshav erel
ativel
ylowinstr
umenterr
or
σisl essthan2μm.
 El aboratemet hodforcor
recti
ngimagecoordinatesf
ormanyt y
pesofer rorcanbeapplied.The
correcti
onsarelimi
tedi
nstereopl
otter
s.

Note:Fr
om at heor
eti
calpointofv i
ewbot hrelat
iveori
entati
onandst r
ipf
ormat i
onar
enotneededi
nbundl
e
adj
ustmentasobservedimagecoor dinatesofcont rol
pointsareusedt oobtain:
 Theunknownor i
entationparamet ersofeachbundl ex0j,
y ,
0jz0j&ωj,φj,
χj
 Thegroundcoordinates(Xi,
Yi,Zi)forthepoint
swhosei magecoordinateswer
emeasured

49
Howev er,asbundleadj
ust
mentisanon-li
nearprobl
em,appr oxi
matevaluesforbot
hset
sofunknownsare
needed.Therefore,i
npracti
ce,bot
hr el
ati
veorient
ati
onandst r
ipfor
mat i
onmaybedonet oobtainthe
approximateval
uesoftheunknownsandtoscreenoutblunders.

50
 UNI
T6:
PHOTOI
NTERPRETATI
ON

6.
1 Def
ini
ti
on

Photogr
aphi cInterpretationisdefinedast heactofexami ningphot ographicimagesfor
thepurposeofi dent i
fyi
ng objectsand j udging theirsigni
ficance.A phot ointer
pret
er
syst
ematicallystudiesphot ogr
aphsi nconj uncti
onwi thotherav ail
ablemat er
ial
ssuchas
maps,repor t
s,etc.t opr ocessthisinformat i
ontoaf orm suit
ablef ortheproducti
onofa
map.Successi ninter pretat
ionlar
gelydependsupont hefoll
owi ngfactor
s:-
 Training,skil
l andexper i
enceoft heinterpr
eterpossessed
 Char acteri
sticsofobj ect
st obest udied
 Qual i
tyofphot ographsbeingused

Furt
her
more,pr
opersel
ecti
onofemulsi
on,scal
eofphot ogr
aphs,seasonoff
li
ght
,and
ti
meofdayensur
eaeri
alphot
ogr
aphsusef
ulfori
nter
pret
ati
ons.

Stereoscopi
cv i
ewing,part
icul
arl
ywithmagnifi
cati
on,i
snor mall
ysuperiortomonoscopic
viewingfori
nterpr
etati
on.Colorphot
ographsaresuperi
ortoblackandwhi tephot
ographs
forinter
pret
ati
on,part
icul
arlywhenvegetat
ionandlanduseareimportant.Forsomekinds
ofterrai
ncolori
nfr
aredmaybemor esuit
ablethanordi
narycol
orthoughitismorecostl
y.

6.
2 Basi
cChar
act
eri
sti
csofPhot
ogr
aphi
cImages

Thebasiccharact
eri
sti
csPhotographicImagesmakeaerialphotogr
aphyver
yusef
uland
i
mportantint he fi
eld of geographicalsci
ence and survey
ing.Foll
owi
ng ar
et he
char
acter
ist
icsofaer
ialphot
ographs.

a)Synopt i
c Vi ewpoi nt:Aer i
alphot ographs gi ve a bird’
s ey ev iew ofl arge ar eas
enabling us t o see sur f
ace f eatures int heirspat i
alcont ext.Theyenabl et he
detectionofsmal lscalef eaturesaswel lascont extoft hesef eat ures.Theyai di n
thedet ectionofsmal lscal ef eatur
esandspat i
alrelati
onshipst hatwoul dnotbe
foundont hegr ound.
b)TimeFr eezingAbi li
ty:Phot ographsar ether ecordsofspat i
al f
eat ures, t
heirphy sical
andgeomet ricalcondi t
ionsatt heinstanceofphot ography .Phot ogr aphicr ecords
canbeanal yzedi nt hef i
el dori nthel abor at
oryundercont roll
edcondi t
ionswi th
helpofequi pmentf orretr
iev i
ngusef ulinformation.Theyser veashi st
oricev idence
andhel pi nunder standingt heobj ect
scondi tionsinpastatanyt ime.
c)Capabi li
tytoSt opAct i
on:Dy namicev entssuchasf loods,forestf ires,oilspill
set c.
canber ecor ded usi ng phot ographs.Usi ng thischar acteri
stici ti spossi blet o
invest
igat e how a phenomena orev enti s behav i
ng wi thr espectt ot i
me ( by
capturingphot ogr aphsindi f
ferentpointoft i
mes) .
d) St
ereoscopi cCov erage:Itpr ov i
desast ereoscopi cviewoft heEar th’ssur faceand
makesi tpossi blet otakemeasur ementshor i
zontall
yandv erticall
ybyt hefor mation
ofthreedi mensi onmodel

e
)Lar
geSpect
ralRange:Humanscanseeobj
ect
sref
lect
ingener
gybet
ween0.
4
51
 to0.7mi cr
ometersonly
.Phot ogr
aphscanbeacqui redbeyondthehuman
vi
sibl
erangeofspectrum (0.
4t o0.7mi cr
omet
ers).Itispossi
bletocapt
ure
photogr
aphsinr egi
onssuch asi nfr
ared,mi
crowav e por
ti
onsalso.This
opensforahugesetofthingstoexplor
eandunderstand.

f
) Avai
labi
l
it:Ae
y ri
alphotographs are prepar
ed bydi f
fer
entagencies (
both
pri
vateandgov er
nment )andarereadi
lyavai
labl
emostoft het
imes.However
,
i
tisalsoeasyt operfor
m photographyandacquiredatai
ncaseifdataisnot
avai
labl
ef oranyregi
on.

g
)Economy:Aeri
alphotogr
aphyische
apert
hangroundbasedsur
veyingwhen
dataisrequi
red overa larg
ea rea
.Howeve
r ,for s
mall
era r
easa e
ria
l
phot
ogr
aphybecomescost
ly.

6.
3 El
ement
sofPhot
oInt
erpr
etat
ion

Theel
ement
swhi
chcont
ri
but
etophot
oint
erpr
etat
iononphot
ogr
aphsar
e:-

a)Shape:Shaper eferstothegener alform,structur

e,orout l
i
neofi ndiv
idualobjects.
Shape can be a v erydistinct
ive clue forinter
pretat
ion.Straightedge shapes
ty
picallyr
epresenturbanoragr i
cult
ural(fi
eld)tar
gets,whilenaturalf
eatures,such
asf orestedges,ar egenerallymor eirregularinshape,exceptwher emanhas
createdaroadorcl earcuts.Theshapeofsomef amili
arobjectssuchasai rfi
elds,
hi
ghwayi nter
section,pl
ayground,factori
es,etc.mayserv etoi
dent i
fytheseobjects.

b)Si
ze:Sizeoft heobjectinthephot ographi
sr el
atedtothescal esothescaleofthe
photographst obest udiedmustbeknown.Measur ementi salsoanessent i
alpart
ofthisprocess, al
though,theinterpr
etermaydonoact ualmeasur ing.Forexample:
l
arge bui l
dings such as f actori
es orwar ehouses woul d suggestcommer cial
propert
y,wher eas smallbui l
dings wouldindicateresidenti
aluse.Si mil
arl
y,to
di
stinguishnat i
onalhighwayandsecondar yroadssizeplaysani mportantr
ole.

c)Shadow:Manyobj ectswhichcannotbei
denti
fi
edbyvert
icalvi
ewsduetotoosmall
orobscureindet ai
lorduet olackoftonalcont
rastwiththei
rsur
roundi
ngscan
sometimebei denti
fi
edbyt heshadow cast
.Suchaspol e,smokechimneys,t
hin
hedges,Suspensi
onBr i
dge,Tower.et
c.

d)Tone:Objectsofdiff
erentcolorhavediffer
entqual
it
iesofl i
ghtref
lect
ionwhich
causesdiff
erentbri
ghtnessandtherefor
e,regist
eri
nv ar
yingshadesoft oneson
thephot
ographs.suchas: Bar
renGround,Cul
tiv
atedl
and,etc.

e)Texture:Textur
er efer
st othearr
angementandf requencyoftonalvari
ati
oni n
parti
cularar
easofani mage.Thedegreeofcoar
senessorsmoothnessofanobject
i
nphot o-i
magecanof t
enbeausefulkeyini
denti
fi
cati
on.Suchasfi
elds,
asphal
t,or
grassl
ands,fi
eldbeforeandaft
erharv
est,et
c.

52
 f
) Pat t
erns:Patter
nr ef
erst ot hespati
alarrangementofv i
siblydisti
nctobjects.
Ty pi
call
y an orderl
yr epeti
ti
on ofsimil
art ones and t
extures willproduce a
disti
nctiv
eandul ti
matelyrecogni
zabl
epattern.Forexample:Or char
dswithev enly
spacedt rees,
andurbanstreetswit
hregul
arlyspacedhouses.

g)Association:Associ at
ion t
akes into accountt he relati
onship between other
recognizableobjectsorfeatur
esinproximitytothet argetofinter
est.Associat
ion
ofsev eralsurr
oundingobjectsmayl eadt oident
ificat
ionoft heobjects.Suchas
bridgewi t
hriv
er,lakewithboats,
rai
lwaystati
onwit hrai
lwaytracks,et
c.

6.4 FilmsandFi l
ters
Bl
ackandWhiteFi
lms:
 Panchromati
c-formostpurposes
 Inf
rar
ed-forvegetati
onandwatercondi
ti
on.

Col
orf
il
ms:
 Conv ent
ional-forsoil
s,geologyandi ndustr
ialstockpil
esandst udiesofoffshore
conditi
ons,sub-surf
aceexplorati
on, et
c.
 Infr
aredorFal secolor-issensit
ivetogr een,redandi nf
raredradi
ati
onandi sused
for-mili
tar
ypur poses-parti
cular
lylocati
ngcamouf l
agedt arget
s,detect
ionofplant
diseases,insectout breaks i
nf orestlands,l ocati
ng diseased t
rees and water
pollut
ionstudies,et
c.

Fi
lter
s:Hazecutti
ngfi
lter
spl acedinfrontofcamer asl
ensareusuall
yusedwi
thaer
ial
fi
lms.“Minusblue”fi
lt
erisgener all
yusedf orblackandwhi t
efil
ms.Forcol
orfi
lms
general
l
ycolorl
ess(ul
tr
av i
olet)orpal
ey el
l
ow(minusblue)f
il
ter
sareused.

Resolut
ion,gr
aini
nessandspeedoff
il
msar
eimpor
tantf
act
orswhi
l
esel
ect
ingf
il
msf
or
aeri
alphotogr
aphy.

6.5 FeatureExtract
ion
Thefol
lowing paragraphsareintended to giv
eagener alideaoft heappearanceof
commonf eatur
esast heyappearonaerialphotographs.Sothefeat
uresareextr
actedas
pert
hei
rcorrespondingappear
anceinthephot ograph.
a)Roads
Wellbuil
tmai nroadsmayappearli
ghtordar kaccordi
ngtoty peofsurf
ace.Asar ul
e
theyhavewel l
-defi
nededgesandar eofev enwidth.Reasonablysmoothcurvesare
usuall
yconnectedbystrai
ghtst
ret
ches.Unlessthereisnoalternat
iveamainroadwill
notgoupanddownv er
ysteephi
ll
s.Lookforbri
dgesandcul vertswher
ewatercour
ses
crosstheroad.
b)TracksandFoot paths
Thecharacter
isti
csoft racksandfoot pat
hsar e:usual
lyli
ghtt one,t
endtowander
about
,sharpturns,cangoupsteephil
ls, of
tennotbri
dgesatwat er.Atr
ackoff
oot
path
usual
l
yleadssomewher esuchasbui
ldings,for
estorcult
ivat
ion.
c)Br
idges
53
 Theseoccuratthecrossi
ngsofroads,t
racks,r
ail
waysandwat er
courses,oratshar
p
di
psi ntheground.Theyareinv
ariabl
ystrai
ght,aregener
all
yunifor
mi nwidt
h,and
probabl
ycastashadow.

d)Rai l
way s
The characteri
sti
cs ofrail
way s are si
milart o good roads,butbecause ofpoor
ref
lecti
vi
ty,usuall
ydarker
,mayhav elongst r
aightstret
ches,verysmoothcur
ves,they
neverturnoffatsharpangles,nevergoupast eepslope,juncti
onscomeinatver
yf l
at
angles,oft
enpar al
lelandcloset oroad.Someoft heassociatedetai
l
sarestati
ons,
bri
dges,cutti
ngs,embankment s,engi
neturningtri
angles,etc.

e)Wat er
Pondsandl akesareusuallyver
yev enintone,dependingont heclari
tyofthewat erand
the smoot hness of the surface.Tones of t he water i n River
s,St reams and
Watercour sescanbeany thingfrom bl
ackandwhi t
e.(I
tappear swhitewherei tr
eflects
thedirectsun’ sray
si nt
ot hecamer a)
.Of t
enhiddenbyv egetati
onbuti nhill
ycount ry
thecour secanusuallybefairl
yaccuratel
ydeterminedasbei ngatt helowestpartoft he
val
ley.Somet i
mesameander i
ngr i
vercanbei denti
fi
edbyasnaki ngbandorhi gher
vegetation.

f) Cut
li
ne
Thesearest
rai
ghtl
i
nescutt
hroughv
eget
ati
on,
canbeconf
usedwi
tht
racks.

g)PowerLi nesCarri
edbyPylons
I
ft hescal
eislargeenoughtheli
nes thei
rshadowcanoftenbeseen.Thepyl
onsare
usuall
yevenlyspacedandruninstr
aightl
i
nes.Oft
entheshadowi
smor eobvi
ousthan
thepylon.

h)Fences, Hedges,Wal
l
s
Thesear eusuall
ydarkthi
nli
nes.Thelandonei
thersi
deofafence,et
c.isoft
enof
di
ffer
entt one.Wir
eFencescanrarel
ybeseen.Oft
enhavetr
ackorfootpat
hrunni
ng
al
ongt hem.

i
) Rocks
Rocksvaryf
rom whit
etodarkgr
ey,accor
dingtosurf
ace,t
hetypeofrock,
anddi
rect
ion
ofthesun.Thosefaci
ngthesunrefl
ectt
helightandappearwhit
e.Shadowsar
edeep
andwelldef
ined.

j
) Sand
Thi
shasacomparat
ivel
ysmoot
hsur
face,appear
sli
ght
.Deepert
onedpat
chesmay
i
ndi
catesl
opes.

6.
6 Fi
eldsofAppl
i
cat
ion

Theimport
anceofphotoi
nterpret
at i
onhasbeenreal
izedinv ari
ousdisci
plinessuchas
l
and,f
orest
,geol
ogyandmines,soilandter
rai
nanal
ysis,et
c.Usingthediff
erentfil
msand
fi
l
terandwiththekeystorecogni zethedetai
l
s,photointer
pretat
ioniscar ri
edoutto
54
i
dent
ifyt
hedetail
saspert
hespeci
ali
zedf
iel
dofst
udi
es.Forsuchpur
poses,i
ntensi
ve
t
rai
ningi
sneeded.

UNI
T7:
PHOTOMOSAI
CS
7.1.
Definit
ion
Aphot omosai csisanassembl yofv er
ti
calaerialphotographsi
nwhi
cht
heedgehav e
been cutand mat ched and f
it
ted together systemati
call
ytofor
m a cont
inuous
photographicrepresentat
ionofaport
ionoftheEar t
h’ssurf
ace.
7.
2.TypesofMosai cs
Basedont hemet hodofcompi lat
iont hemosaicsar eclassi
fiedi nt
ot hef ol
lowingtypes:
a)Uncont roll
edMosai cs:Compi lati
onofphot ographswi thoutregar dt oanyhor i
zontal
contr olpoi nts. The phot ographs are or ient
ed i n posi tioning by mat chi
ng
correspondi ngimagesonadj acentphotographs.
b)Semi -controll
ed Mosai cs:Compi l
ati
on ofphot ographs wi thoutusi ng recti
fi
ed
phot ographsorut i
li
zingplanimetri
ccont rol
forpositi
oni ngofeachphot ograph.
c)Cont rol
ledMosai cs:Compi lati
onofscal edandr ecti
fi
edphot ogr aphsassembl edto
fi
tplot t
edpl animet r
iccontrolpointsforcontrolofscale, azi
mut handposi ti
on.
7.
2.1Met hodofCont r ol
ledMosai cs
Thest
epsforpr eparati
onofcont r
oll
edmosai csareasfoll
ows:
 Rectifyallthephot ogr aphsintoadesirescale
 Mar kcont r
ol pointsoneachoft hephot ogr
aphs
 Mar ktrimlines
 Peel offpartoft hear eat obemat ched
 Trytof i
tthephot ographsusi ngidenti
calcontr
olpointsoftheadj
acentphot
ographs
 Checkt hemat chingoft hedetai
ls
 Iftheyaremat ched,past et
ogethertheadjacentphotographsusi
ngmosaicstape.
7.
3.Advant
agesofMosai cs
Theadvant
agesofthemosai csar easf ol
lows:
i
. Amosai cshowsasasi ngl
epictureofalldet
ail
swhi chcannotbedepi
cted
onamap.
ii
. Featuresar
er epresentedinthei
rnat ur
alappearanceanddi mensi
on
i
ii
. Amosai ccanbeeasi l
yunderstoodbyuser swhocannotr eadamap.
i
v. Itisarapi
dandcheapmet hodofpr oduci
ngmapi nf
ormation.
7.
4.Disadv
antagesofMosaics
Themosai chasexcessi
vedetai
l
s,lackoft
opogr
aphicali
nfor
mat i
onli
keel
evat
ion
andcontoursandther
ecouldbeerr
orsduetor
eli
efandscalevar
iati
ons.
7.
5.Qual
i
tyofMosai
cs
55
Mosai
csar
edependsupont
hedi
ff
erentf
act
orst
hataf
fect
ingi
tsqual
i
ty,someoft
hem ar
eas
f
oll
ows:
 DegreeofHei ghtRelief
:Inaf latt
err
ain,thescalevari
ati
onwi llbesmal landthe
mosaici scomparabletoamapwher east err
ainhav
ingheightreli
efcausesscale
vari
ati
onandl eadstomi smatches.
 Quali
tyofPhot ographs:goodcamer aandhi ghquali
typhotographicmaterial
sare
necessaryforgett
inggoodpr i
nts.
 Quali
tyofFl yi
ng:Excessivet i
l
tsandv ariati
onsinheightofai rcr
aftcausescale
vari
ati
on.
 Skil
loftheCompi l
er:Tri
mmi ng,det
ail
mat chingandpasti
ngofthephot ographneed
goodskillt
ogetar easonablygoodmosaic.
UNI
T8:
PHOTOGRAMMETRI
CPROCESS

8.
1 El
eme
ntsofPhot
ogr
amme
tri
cMa
ppi
ng

Phot
ogrammet r
icmapping i
salso agraphicalmethod ofmapping wher
et hester
eo
pl
ott
inginst
rument
sareused.Thismet
hodi smostcommonl yusedmethodf ormapping.
Theelementsofmappingconsistoft
hest agesshownint heworkfl
ow diagram given
bel
ow:

Pr
oject Gr
oundPr
epar
ati
on Aer
ial
Phot
oMi ssi
on
Pl
anning &PhotoPr
oducti
on

Preparat
ionf
or Contr
olNetwor
k
Resti
tuti
on Densi
fi
cati
on

Phot
ogrammet
ri
c Suppl
ement
arySur
vey
Rest
it
uti
on

Edi
ti
n
g

Wor
kFl
owDi
agr
am f
orSt
ereoRest
it
uti
onMet
hodofMappi
ng

56
1.Proj
ectPlanning:Thi
sisthef ir
ststagewher eallthenecessarydeci
sionsar
etaken
and relevant document s ar e collected. Necessar
y deci si
ons incl
ude the
methodology,humanr esources,budget ,mappingareas,etc.Relev
antdocuments
i
ncludeexisti
ngmaps, speci
ficati
on,relat
eddocument s,et
c.

2.Ground Pr
epar
ati
on:Ifpre-
marki
ng aer
ialphot
ographsarer equi
red mar
king of
si
gnali
zedpoi
ntsarecar
ri
edout
.Otherwi
sethi
sstepisnotnecessar
y.

3.Aeri
alPhot oMi ssi
onandPhot oPr oducti
on:Pr epar
ef li
ghtplanandcar ryoutaerial
photographymi ssi
onforthepr ojectareaaspert hespeci f
icat
ion.Alsoperfor
mst he
photopr oducti
onaspert her equirements.Pr i
ntoutt henumberofset sofaer ial
photographsandasetofdi a-positiv
eandal soenlargementsi fnecessaryforthe
fi
eldwor k.
4.ControlNet wor k Densi
fi
cation:I n gener alcont rolnet work densifi
cati
on for
rest
it
utioniscar ri
edoutbyaer i
alt ri
angul
ationmet hodi nwhi chthecoordinat
eof
eachtiepoints(orpasspoints)ar edetermined.

5.Pr
eparat
ionforResti
tuti
on:I
nt hi
sphase,coll
ectal
lthedia-
posi
tiv
esandt heout
put
oftheaeri
altri
angulat
ion.Prepareplanofactionforresti
tut
ionincl
udingno.of
st
ereoplot
ter
st obeusedandt henumberofoper ator
sandsuper vi
sorsrequi
red.
Pr
eparemapsheetf orcompil
ation,st
udythespeci
fi
cati
on.

6.Photogr
ammet r
icResti
tut
ion:Then,commencet hepl
ott
ingworkf
rom onepairof
thephotogr
aphsofthesheet ,ent
ertheori
ent
ationpar
ameter
sdataintheplott
er
andperf
ormr el
ati
veandabsoluteori
ent
ati
onofthemodel.

Startplot
ti
ngthelineardetail
sfirstsuchasriver
s,road,canals,etc.andt henar ea
detail
ssuchasf orestboundar y,ponds,buil
dingblocks,cult
ivat
ionar ea,etc.and
fi
nallypoi
ntdetai
lssuchassi nglebuildi
ngsandhuts,trees,
etc.Aftercompl eti
onof
pl
animet r
icdetai
l
s,dr aw f
irstthei ndexcontour
sandt heninter
medi atecont ours
and ifnecessarysupplement arycont our
s.Final
ly
,pl otthespothei ghtswher e
necessary.

Ifsuppl
ement ar
ySurveyhavebeentakenplacei
nadv
ancet heni ncorpor
atethe
detai
lswhichar emissedduri
ngplot
ti
ngsuchaspowerl i
nes,det ai
lshiddenin
shadows,classi
fi
edthedetai
lssuchashighwayorotherway s,categoryofthe
canaletc.and plotal
so t
hespecialdet
ail
ssuchasschool,t emples,hospi
tal
,
hist
ori
calsi
tesetc.

7.Supplementar
ySurvey:Supplementarysur
veycanbedonepri
ortost
ereorest
itut
ion
alsobutinthi
scaseaer ialphot
ographswi l
lbethepri
marydocument.Whereasif
thisstepi
scarri
edoutaf t
errest
it
utionbothaeri
alphot
ogr
aphsandthecopyoft he
mapmanuscr iptwi
l
l betakentofi
eld.

Supplementar
ysurveyisrequir
edtoextr
actthedetai
l
swhichar
euni
denti
fi
edinthe
aer
ialphotogr
aphs,toclassi
fythedet
ail
s,t
ocollectt
henamesoft
hefeatur
es,and
57
 t
ofi
ndoutt
hemi
ssi
ngdet
ail
s.

8.Edit
ing:Thisi sthel astphaseoft herestit
uti
onwher eallthechecki ngandedge
matching wor ks are perf
ormed.Checki ng include toi ncorporat
e det ai
l
sf r
om
supplementarysur vey,correctdepict
ion ofdet ails as pert he map scale,any
missingdetail
s,mat chingofcontourlineswi t
hspothei ghts,etc.Thent hepenci
l
manuscriptthuspr oducedwi l
lbef
orwar dedforfurthermappi ngprocedure.

8.
2Di
git
alTe
rra
inMode
l

ADi git
alter
rai
nModel( DTM)i sadi gi
talrepr
esentati
onoft er
rai
nrel
ief
,descri
bingthe
geomet r
yoft he Earth’s sur
face (t
he ground surf
ace,notwhati s gr
owing on itor
prot
rudingfrom itsuchasbui l
dings)
.A DTM bei ngageomet r
icmodelofthegr ound
surf
ace carri
es no informati
on aboutt he gr
ound mat er
ial(l
and orwater,soiltype,
vegetati
oncover
).

Thegroundsurface,howev er
,isacompl icat
edf unctioni
nt hesensethatthev ari
ationofZ
wit
hhorizont
alposit
ion( X,
Y)canbehi ghlyirr
egul ar
.Thereisnosi mpleanal
y t
icalfunct
ion,
whichcoulddescri
bet err
ainreli
efoveral ar
gear ea.Consideri
ngthesetwof actst hemost
conveni
entwayofdi gital
lymodel l
i
ngt errai
nreliefistoprovidetheelevati
onv aluesZiof
manypointsofthegroundsur facetogetherwitht hehori
zontalcoordi
nates(X,
Y) .
i

Acquiri
ngdatafrom st
ereoimagestakenbyanaeri
alcamer aorasatel
li
tesensorordata
from ai
rbor
nelaserscanni
ng(ALS)yiel
dsaDSM,adi gi
talsurfacemodel–notdescri
bing
thegroundsurf
acebutthesurfacet
hesensorhasseen.Pointsonroof
sorthetreecanopy
havetobef i
l
ter
edinordertoobtai
nfrom aDSM t
oDTM.

58
Numberofpoi nts
Basical l
yt hemor epoi ntsthebet teri ftherewer enoeconomi cconst raints.Usual l
yev ery
pointcost smoney ,t
her ef
or e,wet r
yt omodel terr
ainwi thanappr opr i
atenumberofpoi nts.
Iti
st hespaci ngbet weenpoi ntsrelat i
vet ot hev ari
abi li
tyoft errainwhi chdet erminest o
whatdet ailt hegr oundsur faceisr epr esent edbyt heDTM.I fterraini sr ough( v
erysmal l
surfacef orms,cont ourl i
nesar ehi ghlywi ndi ngandmany )weneedasmal lspaci ng,
wher easf orsmoot ht er
rain wecan do wi th al ar gerspaci ng.Thespaci ng bet ween
ref
er encepoi nts(thesampl ingspaci ng)def inest her esol uti
onoft hemodel .Howl argei t
shoul dbei snoteasyt odet ermine;i tdependsont her equirement soft hei ntended
applicationoft heDTM ( t
hedesi redqual i
tyoft hemodel )
,thet errainv ariabil
it
y,andcost s
consi derations.Thepr ocessofobt aining3Dcoor dinat esofmanyt err
ai npoint scanbe
cal
ledsampl ingt hesur faceandmeasur ing.Sampl ing t hesur facei spi ckingr elevant
surfacepoi nts( ther eferencepoi nt s)and measur ing i sdet ermi ningZ at( X,Y)oft he
sel
ect edpoi nts.A DTM f oradet ailedi r
rigat iondesi gn,f orinst ance,r equi
resanot her
sel
ect ionofpoi ntsthanaDTM f orr ectif
yingaQui ckbi rdi mage.Al sot her equirementon
coordi nateaccur acy( t
hemeasur ingaccur acy )wi l
l v
ar ybet weenappl i
cations.

59
Distr
ibuti
onofPoi nts
Itdoesnotmat tert ot heconceptofaDTM whet hert hepointsarearrangedi nar egul
ar
gri
d,alongli
nesofequal el
ev ati
on( i
e, contourl
i
nes), orwhateverotherpattern.Thedegr ee
ofirregul
ari
tyoft het errai
nr eli
efint hear eaofinterestandt hedataacqui sit
ionmet hod
thatcanbeappl ieddet ermi net he“ sampl i
ngpattern”.Contourli
nes,fori nstance,donot
offeragoodt erraindescr ipt i
oni nt hecaseoff l
att err
ain;tr
acingcontour sinast ereo
modelwoul dthennotbeagoodchoi ce.Sampli
ngi nar egul
argr i
disf avour abl
ei nthe
caseofsmoot hr olli
ngt ypeoft errain.Ir
regul
arterrain(abruptchangesofel evati
on,or
bothsmoot handr oughr el i
efi nt hear eaofi nt
erest,etc)canbet terbemodel ledwith
i
rregularl
ydi
str
ibut edpoi nts.

AsetofX, Y,Zcoor di
nat esof( sensibly
)selectedandwel l
-measur edpointsisnotat er
rain
modely et.Terrainisanuni nterruptedsurface( notadi screteone) ,hence,amodelofi t
needsr uleswhi ch def i
nehow el evati
on Z can becomput ed atanyposi ti
on ( X,Y) .
Comput i
ngZat( X,Y)f r
om asetZi -
-i
e,esti
mat i
ngel ev at
ionwher eitwasnotmeasur ed--i
s
commonl y call
ed i nterpolat
ion.We may di sti
ngui sh di ffer
entt ypes ofpoi nts when
samplingt er
rai
n( eg,skeletonpoi nts,fi
ll
ingpoints,boundar ypointsofanexcl udedr egion)
andassignt othem di fferentr ol
esi ninter
polati
on.Aswi thanycomput erpr ocessingt he
datamustbepr operl
yst r
uctured,sot hattheycaneasi lybeaccessed,mani pulat
edand
processed furt
her .Themostwi del
yused dat ast ructuresf orDTM ar egr id and TI N
(Tri
angulatedIr
regularNet wor k).

Gr
id Tr
iangul
arI
rr
egul
arNet
wor
k(TI
N)

60
Gridsystem i
sasetofpoi ntswhoseelevat
ionaredet
erminedattheprescri
bedinter
valof
dist
anceandTr iangularI
rr
egularNet
work(TIN)isasetoftriangl
espossibl
ejoi
ningaset
ofpoints.Thepoi nt
sar esel
ectedattheplaceswherethereisachangeofsl opeoft he
terr
ainorpoint
s.

Met hodsofGener ati

onofDTM
Iftheal r
eadyexi
stingelevat
iondat
asetsdonotsatisf
yourspecificrequi
rements,
wecan
consi der gener
ating our own, by scanning cont our sheets or usi ng (di
git
al)
phot ogrammetri
csy stems,l
aserscanni
ngorradaroraf iel
dsurvey.Thereisawealthof
model i
ng,vi
sual
izati
onandDTM appl i
cat
ionsoftwareav ai
labl
e,stimul
ati
ngbot hown
product i
onandtheuseofDTMs.

Weknowal ar
gev ari
etyofmet hodsofcol lecti
ngDTM dat a,eachonehav ingitsspeci fi
c
adv antages.Wecandet erminet hecoor dinatesoft errai
npoi ntsdi r
ectl
yon/ fr
om t he
groundbyf i
eldsurveyi
ngorAi rbor neLaserScanni ng( ALS)ori ndirectl
y(bydigit
izi
ngf r
om
aerialphotographsorst ereosat ell
it
ei magesorbyscanni ngcont ourli
nesont opogr aphic
maps) .Itdependsont heki ndofDTM want edhow dat aar ecol l
ected,ie,theuser '
s
speci fi
cati
ons and t he producer '
s capabi li
ti
es ( access t o dat a sources,av ail
able
equi pmentand exper t
ise,del i
v ery schedule and cost s).Eg,a DTM f ora det ail
ed
engi neeri
ngdesignusual l
yonl ycov ersasmal lareabutr equir
esahi ghdensi t
yofpoi nts.
Dat acanbecol l
ectedei t
herbyusi ngaut omat icrecor di
ngTachomet ers,t
otalstationor
GPS,by Phot ogrammet r
y orALS.A DTM f orr ectify
ing sat ell
it
ei mages,cor rect i
ng
measur ementsforanat i
onalgr av i
tynetwor korphy sicalplanni ngonar econnaissance
l
ev el canbeobtainedfrom digit
izingtopogr aphicmapsof1: 250,000orev en1:500,000.

The most wi dely appl i

ed met hods of col l
ecting di gi
tal el evation dat a ar e
digi
ti
zing/scanningexi sti
ngt opogr aphi
cmaps( f
ormedi um andsmal lscal eappl i
cati
ons)
andphot ogrammet ricdat aacqui siti
onbyappl yingdigitalimagemat chingordi gi
ti
zingin
ster
eomodel s.DTM gener ationfrom ALSandr adarint erf
eromet r
yisr el
ativel
ynewwhen
compar edt outi
lizi
ngi magesf rom passivesensor s.ALSi swi delyappl i
edi nEur opeand
NorthAmer i
ca.Thegl obaldat asetDTEDwasobt ai
nedbyr adari nter
feromet ry(SRTM, t
he
Shutt
leRadarTopogr aphi cMi ssi
on) .
Photogrammet ryof f
ersdi fferentpossibi
li
tiesfordigit
izing:inar egul
argr id,alongpar all
el
prof
il
es,al ong contourl ines,orpur elyselectivel
y,ie,measur i
ng distinctmor phologi
c
feat
ures(suchasRi dgel ines, roads,canals,r
iverbank, etc).Stereomodeldi git
izingcanbe
donest at
ionaryorindy nami cmode( i
e,"
recordingont hef l
y "
).

61
Fi
g:RegularGr
id Al
ongpar
all
elpr
ofi
l
es Al
ongcont
ourl
i
ne Al
ongMor
phol
ogi
cal
Feat
ures

(
Dif
fer
entPat
ter
nofEl
evat
ionPoi
nts)

Thestate-
of-
the-ar
tphotogr ammetr
icelevati
ondataacqui si
ti
onisusi
ngalldigi
talsy
stems.
DTM gener ation by i mage mat ching i s standard component of any di gital
photogr
ammet ric sy stem. Adv anced dat a col l
ecti
on pr ocedures, whet her
photogr
ammet ricorbasedondi gi
tizi
ngmaps,appl ycomposi t
esampling,ie,col
lecting
bulkdat
a( gr
ids,ir
regul
arl
ydi st
ri
but
edpoi nts,orcontourli
nes)anddi
sti
nctdat a(dr
ainage
l
ines,ot
hermor phologi
clinesandpoints,anomalousregions).

Accur
acyAssessment
Themostwidelyappl
i
edmethodtoassesstheaccur
acyofaDTM istocompar
eel
evat
ion
computedf
rom theDTM wi
thcheckval
uesatrandomlydi
str
ibut
edpoi
ntsandt
ocal
cul
ate
theRMSEas

∑
2
∆z
σ=
n
Wher e:∆zist heerrori
nelevati
onobtainedf r
om t
hedifferenceofval
uebetweent
he
i
nterpolat
ion andmeasur edval
ueoft hepoi nt
sandni st henumberofpoint
swhose
el
evat i
onaremeasur ed.Comparethev alueofσwi th3σ0,Iftheval
ueislessDTM i
s
accurateenoughifi
texceedtheDTM needt obeimpr
oved.

I
ngeneral,t
hesmal l
erthespacingbetweenpoi ntswhereel
evati
onismeasuredt hehigher
t
he accuracy ofthe DTM.The pr ecision ofmeasur ed val
ues and the method of
i
nter
polat
ionappli
ed( unl
esscompl etelyi
nadequate)havemuchl essinfl
uence.Relevant
f
ortheDTM accuracyisnott hespaci
ngbet weenpointsinabsol
utetermsbutthespaci ng
r
elat
ivetothevari
abili
tyofterr
ain.I
nr oughterrai
nasmal l
ersamplingspaci
ngi sneeded
t
haninsmoot hter
raintoachievethesameaccur acy.

Appli
cationsofDTM
Formanyy earsDTMswer eonl yappl
iedf orhighwaydesi gnandsi mil
arcivilengi
neering
proj
ects.Fav ouredbyt her apiddevelopmentofdi gi
taltechnol
ogyDTMshav efound
manifoldapplicati
onsnow.Apr imeapplicati
oni ssimplyt ovi
suali
zeter
rain(on2Dmedi a)
i
ndi f
ferentway sandf r
om di ff
erentpointsofv iew,whi chinturncanbev eryusefulfor
vari
ouspl anni
ngt asks(eg,visualimpactanalysisofanewr oad,anewi ndustri
alcomplex,
etc)
,mi ssion planning,resource analy
sis,etc.Gi ven a DTM we can easi l
ygener ate
62
orthogonalvi
ewsofterr
ainasneededformappi
ng,
orwecancreateper
spect
ivevi
ewsfor
reali
sti
cimpressi
ons.
Thef oll
owingtabl
egivestheapplicat
ionofDTM i
ndi
ffer
entfiel
dsandcorrespondi
ng
products:

S.No. Fi
eldofAppli
cati
on Product
s
1. Ci
vi
lEngi
neer
ing:desi
gnandpl
anni
ng Extr
acti
onoflongit
udinalpr
ofi
l
es
andcrosssecti
ons
2. Cart
ography
:Mappingofelevat
ionorsl
ope Cont ourMap
3. Photogr
ammet r
y: Di gi
tall
y Cont rol
led El
evati
onProfi
les
Ort
hophotoProduct
ion
4. Water Resources: Water shade and Basi n deli
neati
on, r i
dge and
dr
ainageanal
ysis drai
nagedeli
neati
on

Fig:
Prof
il
es;
longi
tudi
nal
alongadesi
gnedr
oadandcr
osssect
ionsandapat
ter
nof
cont
ourmap

8.
3 Or
tho-
phot
opr
oduct
ion

Ortho-
photoi saphot oinwhi cht i
l
tandr eliefdi
splacement sofanaer i
alphot ographar e
geomet r
icall
ycorrected.Ingener al
,ortho-photoisproducedt hreetimesenl argedt hanits
ori
ginalphoto.Forexampl e,i
ft hephot oisatscale1:20000t hent heortho-photoscal e
couldbeupt o1:7000.Thepr ocesst omakeor t
ho-ohotoi stermedasor tho-rectif
icati
on.
This procedureist otal
ly based on t he comput ert echnology in which or tho-photo
producti
onequipmenti swi t
ht her el
atedsof t
ware.Fort hisprocess,digi
talterrainmodel
(DTM)oft heareai snecessar y.Theout putwi l
lbei ndi gi
talfor
mf rom whichanor t
ho-
photoinanappr opriatescalecanbepl ot
tedf r
om theplotter.

8.
3.1 Pr
oduct
ionofOr
thophot
o

Therear etwomet hodst oproduceor thophoandt heyareasf ol

lows:
1)Di ff
erenti
alRectif
icationMet hod:I nthismet hod,StereoPl ott
ersupportedby
comput erisused.Fi rstofall
,relati
veor i
entati
onandabsol uteori
entati
onar e
performedinthest ereoplott
erusi ngstereopairofphot ographstoform athree
dimension modeloft hearea.Themodeli st hen scanned byasmal lsli
t
fol
lowingtheheightoft heterrai
n.Thedat aisdirectl
yrecodedi nafi
lm att
ached
withthestereoplotterasthescanni ngadv anced.Attheendoft heprocess,t
he
63
 f
il
misdev
elopedt
opr
oduceanor
thophot
oimage.

2)Di
git
alOr
thophot
oPr
oduct
ionMet
hod:

Thest
epsoft hedigitalort
hophot opr oductionareasf ol
lows:
 Scannedt heaer i
alphot ost oobt aindigit
ali
mage
 Per formInnerandRel ativeOr i
ent ati
on
 Per form AerialTr i
angul ation to est abl
ish cont
rolpoint
sf orr
ecti
ficat
ion
processwi t
hthehel pofauxi li
arydat asuchasGr oundcontr
olpoi
nts,
camer a
calibrati
ondat a,ref
erencesy stem, etc.
 Per form AbsoluteOrient ati
on
 Gener ateDigitalTerr
ainModel
 Per form ort
ho-recti
fi
cat i
ont oproduceor thophoto
 Pr intoutt heor t
hophot o, i
fnecessar y

Thewor
kfl
owchar
tfort
hepr
oduct
ionofOr
thophot
oisgi
venbel
ow:

Aer
ial

Scanni
ngof  Fl
ightI
nfor
mat
ion
 Camera
I
nformati
on

Di
git
alI
mage I
nner Rel
ati
ve

 GroundCont r
olData
Aer
ial
I nf
ormationaboutref
erence
system
 Camer acal
ibrat
iondat
a,etc.
Absol
ute

Or
tho DTM DTM Ext
ract
ion

Or
thophot
o

Fl
owchar
tofPr
oduct
ionofOr
thophot
o

8.
3.2 Or t
hophotoMosai
c
A mosai
c prepar
ed by usi
ng or
thophot
os i
s cal
l
ed Or
thophot
o Mosai
c.As t
he
64
 ort
hophotsar
ef r
eef r
om t het
il
tandrel
i
efdi stort
ions,soi tcanbegoodsubst i
tut
ef ora
map.Inordertouseamosai casamap,i ti sadv i
sablet oannot atethemosaici.e.by
addi
ng map information and emphasizing sal i
entt opogr aphicf eat
ures by map
symbols.Such featur
es ar eroads,rai
lway s,wat erf eatures,t owns and vi
ll
ages,
admini
str
ati
veboundar ies,et
c.Names,cont oursandspotel evat i
onsenhancedt he
mosaictoagreaterdegree.Amosaicwithsuchi nformationi scalledaphotomap.

8.
3.3 UsesofMosai cs
Photomosaiccanbeusedf ormanyappl i
cat
ionsandsomeoft
hem ar
easf
oll
ows:
 Planningofapr oject
 Studyofgeol ogical f
eatures
 Floodcont rolproblems
 Ir
rigat
ionpr ojects
 Studyinnat uralresources
 Soilsandf orestry
 Locationofhi ghway ,rai
l
way s,
transmi
ssionli
ne,
 Urbanpl anning
 Cadast r
al surveys
 Etc.

8.
4 Differ
encebetweenAer
ial
PhotoandOrt
hophot
o
Thef
oll
owingaresomeofthedif
fer
encesbet
weenAeri
alPhot
oandOr
thophot
o:

Ser
ia Aer i
al Photo Or
thophot
o
lNo.
1. Oneoft heproductsofAer i
alPhoto Pr
oductder
ivedf
rom Aer
ial
Phot
o
mission
2. I
tisinaCent ralPerspect
iveProj
ecti
on I
tisi
nanOrthogonalPr
oject
ion
3. Scaleatdiff
erentpointsdif
feri
fther
eis Scal
eisuni
for
mt hr
oughout
di
fferenceofelevati
on
4. Exi
stRel i
efandTiltdispl
acement Freefrom Reli
efandTil
t
di
splacement
5. Cannotbetr
eatedasamap Equivalentt
omap
6. Measurementswil
lbeer
roneous Measur ementsareaccur
ateenough

65