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Big parts
Engine blocks and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine
frames, railway wheels, pipes, bells, pump
housings
Small parts
Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues,
frying pans
All varieties of metals can be cast - ferrous
and nonferrous
Classification of Casting
Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
Advantage: more complex shapes possible
Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
the time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal
and can be used to make many castings
Advantage: higher production rates
Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to
open the mold
The Mold in Casting
Sand Casting
Shell Moulding
Investment Casting
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
Overview of Sand Casting
and Steps in Sand Casting
Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high
melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
Castings range in size from small to very large
Production quantities from one to millions
S 1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
T 2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
E 4. Clean and inspect casting
Separate gating and riser system
P 5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve
S metallurgical properties
Examples of Sand Cast Parts
Making the Sand Mold
Cavity is closed
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwaXCko_Tkw
Heating, Pouring and
Solidification of Metal for Casting
Cupolas
Direct fuel‑fired furnaces
Crucible furnaces
Electric‑arc furnaces
Induction furnaces
Cupolas
and aluminum
https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=melting_furnaces
Shell Molding or Shell Mold
Casting
In this process castings are produced by using the thin shell mold of sand where
sand particles are held together by thermosetting resin binder
Step (1) A metal pattern is heated and Step (2) Box is inverted so that sand and Step (3) Box is repositioned
placed over a box containing sand resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a so loose uncured particles
mixed with thermosetting resin layer of the mixture to partially cure on the drop away
surface to form a hard shell
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=44R2IbzTvt4
Shell Molding: Advantages and
Disadvantages
Advantages:
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish of castings
Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
Can be mechanized for mass production
Disadvantages:
More expensive metal pattern
Difficult to justify for small quantities
Investment Casting
(or Lost Wax Process)
In this casting
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make
the mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten
metal.
(1) Wax patterns are produced (5) Mold is held in an inverted position and
heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip
(2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue
out of the cavity
to form a pattern tree
(3) Pattern tree is coated with a thin (6) Mold is preheated to a high
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVsJlWEzZY8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9BmGnUZyy2o
Investment Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
Close dimensional control and good surface finish
Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
This is a net shape process
Additional machining is not normally required
Disadvantages:
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process
Slip Casting of Ceramics
Slip casting is a specialized way of using plaster moulds for mass https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sex4zYrXQCk
production of ceramics. The word "slip" means a single clay or a
mixture of clays and other materials that has been mixed with enough
water to make it liquid, so that it can be poured into a plaster mould.
Solid Slip Casting Drain Slip Casting
In this method the mould forms both the inner The slip casting process shown in Fig. produces
and outer face of the cast. The advantage is, a hollow item which outside has the shape of the
that all casts will be identical and the cast can mould. This process is called drain casting
have walls of varied thickness. Solid casting because the moulds are emptied of excess slip.
moulds are more complicated to make and they
are mainly used for high quality ware and for
items that need to be of uniform size.
Drain Slip Casting
Permanent Mold
Casting Processes
Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:
A new mold is required for every casting
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
The processes include:
Basic permanent mold casting
Die casting
Centrifugal casting
The Basic Permanent Mold
Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two
sections designed for easy, precise
opening and closing
Molds used for casting lower
melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast
iron (1) Mold is preheated and (2) Cores (if any are
Molds material should have high coated for lubrication and used) are inserted and
resistance to erosion and thermal heat dissipation mold is closed
fatigue
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/permanent-mold-casting
Permanent Mold Casting:
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages:
Good dimensional control and surface finish
Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in
a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
Limitations:
Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
High cost of mold
Applications and Metals for
Permanent Mold Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold
cavity under high pressure, and solidified to make cast part
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and part is
removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what distinguishes this
from other permanent mold processes
M Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or marging steel
O Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
L Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to prevent sticking
D
Die-casting is the largest casting technique that is used to manufacture consumer, commercial and industrial products
like automobiles, toys, parts of sink faucet, connector housing, gears, etc. Most die castings are done from non-ferrous
metals like aluminum, magnesium, etc.
Die Casting Machines
Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closed
while liquid metal is forced into cavity
Two main types: Hot-chamber machine Cold ‑chamber machine
Hot‑chamber Die Casting Cold‑chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
injects liquid metal under high pressure from external melting container, and a piston
into the die injects metal under high pressure into die
High production rates cavity
500 parts per hour not uncommon High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring
Applications limited to low
step
melting‑point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and other Casting metals: aluminum, brass, copper and
mechanical components magnesium alloys
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead
Certain types of metals — those with a high melting point — can
only be processed using cold-chamber die casting. The high
temperatures required to achieve a molten state for metals such as
aluminum, magnesium and copper means a separate furnace must
be used, which is why some manufacturers choose cold-chamber die
casting over hot-chamber die casting.
Hot-chamber die casting uses the same process Based on its name, you may assume that cold-chamber
previously mentioned — molten metal is forced die casting involves forcing cold metal through the
through the cavity of a pre-shaped mold using cavity of a mold, but this isn’t necessarily true. Cold-
pressure. The defining characteristic of hot-chamber chamber die casting still requires the use of molten metal
die casting is that metal is heated inside the casting that’s forced into a mold. The difference between these
machine rather than a separate machine or furnace. two processes is that hot-chamber die casting heats metal
Also known as goose-neck machines, hot-chamber inside the casting machine, whereas cold-chamber die
casting machines feature a built-in furnace in which casting involves heating metal in a separate furnace and
metal is heated to achieve a molten state. They use a then transferring the newly molten metal into the casting
hydraulic-powered piston that forces molten metal out machine.
of the furnace and into the die. Hot-chamber die With cold-chamber die casting, metal is first heated to
casting is a relatively fast process, with a typical cycle achieve a molten state in a separate furnace. The molten
lasting just 15 to 20 minutes. While not suitable for metal is then transported to the casting machine where
metals with a high melting point, it’s ideal for zinc it’s fed into the machine’s chamber. The machine uses a
alloys, tin alloys and lead alloys. pressurized plunger to force the molten metal into the
cavity of the mold.
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
(1) with die closed and (2) plunger forces metal in (3) Plunger is withdrawn, die
plunger withdrawn, chamber to flow into die, is opened, and casting is
molten metal flows into maintaining pressure during ejected
the chamber cooling and solidification.
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
https://www.cwmdiecast.com/blog/2016/05/24/die-casting-101-hot-chamber-vs-cold-chamber/
Semicentrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting
The centrifugal casting process marginally differs between the three types but can be
generalised into the following steps.
• The mould wall is coated with a refractory ceramic coating. In the case of True
centrifugal casting mould, it involves applying ceramic slurry while spinning, drying
and then baking.
• Molten metal from an external source is directly poured into the mould without any
gating system through a spout.
• The molten material for the casting can be poured into a rotating mould or the mould
can be rotated after it has been poured.
• The rotating mould’s centrifugal forces drive the molten material to the cavity’s outside
wall once it’s inside.
• Once the desired amount of molten metal is poured, the mould continuously spins
until the part is entirely hardened.
• The mould is removed and opened after the casting has solidified and the casting is
removed.
True Centrifugal Casting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4vkUHb91H0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUjOhtXCoro
Molten metal is poured into a rotating horizontal
mould to produce tubular parts such as pipes,
tubes, rings, and bushes in this casting process.
Mould rotation can take place on a horizontal or
vertical axis, with the former being more common.
The revolving speed of the horizontal true
centrifugal casting is critical to the effectiveness of
the casting process and part quality.
Moulds are made of steel, iron, or graphite, and they can be
coated with a refractory lining to extend their life. The surfaces of
the moulds are designed to allow for pipe casting with a range of
outside styles. The inner surface of the casting remains
cylindrical due to centrifugal forces that evenly distribute the
molten metal.
Castings produced by true centrifugal casting have a high
density, particularly in the outer portions of the component where
centrifugal force is highest. Because centrifugal force
constantly reallocates molten metal toward the mould wall
during freezing, solidification shrinkage at the cast tube’s
outside is not an issue. Any imperfections in the casting tend to
be on the inner wall and, if necessary, can be eliminated by
machining.
How does True centrifugal
casting work?
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of rotation, so
molten metal poured into mold is distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force
Used for smaller parts- jewellery, small bushes, sleaves etc.
Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal casting
methods
How does Centrifuge casting
work?
Trimming
Surface cleaning
Inspection
Repair, if required
Heat treatment
Casting Defects
Cause:
(i) Improper alignment of upper
and lower part during mold
preparation.
(ii) Misalignment of flask (a flask is
type of tool which is used to
contain a mold in metal casting. it Remedies
may be square, round, (i) Proper alignment of the pattern or
rectangular or of any convenient die part, molding boxes.
shape.) (ii) Correct mountings of pattern on
pattern plates.
(iii) Check the alignment of flask.
Swell
It is the enlargement of the mold cavity because of the molten metal pressure,
which results in localised or overall enlargement of the casting.
Cause:
(i) Defective or improper
ramming of the mold.
Remedies
(i) The sand should be rammed properly
and evenly.
Blowholes
When gases entrapped on the surface of the casting due to solidifying metal, a
rounded or oval cavity is formed called as blowholes. These defects are always
present in the cope part of the mold.
Remedies
(i) The moisture content in the sand
must be controlled and kept at desired
level.
Causes (ii) High permeability sand should be
(i) Excessive moisture in the used.
sand. (iii) Sand of appropriate grain size
(ii) Low Permeability of the sand. should be used.
(iii) Sand grains are too fine. (iv) Sufficient ramming should be
(iv) Too hard rammed sand. done.
(v) Insufficient venting is (v) Adequate venting facility should be
provided. provided.
Metal Penetration
These casting defects appear as an uneven and rough surface of the casting.
When the size of sand grains is larged, the molten fuses into the sand and solidifies
giving us metal penetration defect.
Causes
(i) It is caused due to low strength, large
grain size, high permeability and soft
ramming of sand. Because of this the
molten metal penetrates in the molding
sand and we get rough or uneven casting
surface.
Remedies
Causes
(i) Poor gating system
(ii) Low melting temperature
(iii) Lack of fluidity
Remedies
(i) Improved gating system.
(ii) Proper pouring temperature.
Misrun
When the molten metal solidifies before completely filling the mold cavity and
leaves a space in the mold called as misrun.
Causes
(i) Low fluidity of the molten metal.
(ii) Low temperature of the molten metal
which decreases its fluidity.
(iii) Too thin section and improper gating
system.
Remedies
(i) Increasing the pouring temperature of
the molten metal increases the fluidity.
(ii) Proper gating system
(iii) Too thin section is avoided.
Hot Tears or Hot Cracks
when the metal is hot it is weak and the residual stress (tensile) in the material
cause the casting fails as the molten metal cools down. The failure of casting in
this case looks like cracks and called as hot tears or hot cracking.
Causes
Remedies