METAL CASTING PROCESSES

TOC Learning Outcomes

You will be able to-
Introduction to Casting & Foundry,
1. Define and classify casting
Casting classification, Sand casting, techniques.
Gating system, Shell moulding, 2. Identify foundry tools
Investment casting, Die casting- cold 3. Define sand properties
chamber and hot chamber die 4. Describe and discuss
operating principles of various
casting, Centrifugal casting, Casting casting techniques.
Furnaces, Casting Defects 5. Compare various casting
techniques.
6. Discuss Casting Defects
 Introduction

 Casting is a process in which the molten metal

flows by gravity or other force into a mold and
solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
 Casting is usually performed in a foundry
Pouring molten metal
Foundry = factory equipped for
into a mold shaped • making molds
after the part to be • melting and handling molten metal
produced, allowing it to • performing the casting process
harden, and removing • cleaning the finished casting
it from the mold Workers who perform casting are called
foundrymen
 Products made by Casting

 Big parts
 Engine blocks and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine
frames, railway wheels, pipes, bells, pump
housings
 Small parts
 Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues,
frying pans
 All varieties of metals can be cast - ferrous
and nonferrous
 Classification of Casting
Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
the time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal
and can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to
open the mold
 The Mold in Casting

 Contains cavity whose geometry determines part shape

 Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly enlarged to

allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling

 Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand,

plaster, wax, ceramic, and metal

 Expandable Mold type Casting
Processes

 Sand Casting
 Shell Moulding
 Investment Casting
 Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
 Overview of Sand Casting
and Steps in Sand Casting
 Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high
melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very large
 Production quantities from one to millions
S 1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
T 2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
E 4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
P 5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve
S metallurgical properties
Examples of Sand Cast Parts
 Making the Sand Mold

 The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a

pattern, then separating the mold into two halves and removing
the pattern
 The mold must also contain gating and riser system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be included in
mold
 A new sand mold must be made for each part produced
PATTERN
Full‑sized model of part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and machining
allowances in the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it warps
 Metal - more expensive to fabricate, but lasts longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
 Types of Patterns

 Types of patterns used in sand casting:

(a) solid pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match‑plate pattern, (d) cope
and drag pattern
 Types of Sand Molds and
Desirable Mold Properties
 Green‑sand mold - mixture of sand, clay, and water
 “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring
 Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
 Mold is baked to improve strength
 Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green ‑sand
mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating lamps

 Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion

 Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in sand
 Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact with molten metal
 Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow casting to shrink without cracking
the casting
 Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be reused to make other molds?
 Foundry Sand and Binders

Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

 Good refractory properties ‑ for high temperatures
 Small grain size for better surface finish on cast part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape
during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking,
compared to round grains
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase
strength and/or permeability
Foundry Tools
 Open Molds and Closed Molds

Cavity is closed

Cavity is open to atmosphere

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the

shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the
mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity.
 Gating System

It is channel through which molten metal flows Riser

into cavity from outside of mold Reservoir in the mold which is a
 Consists of a down-sprue, through which source of liquid metal to
metal enters a runner leading to the main compensate for shrinkage of the
cavity part during solidification
 At the top of down-sprue, a pouring cup is  The riser must be designed to
often used to minimize splash and freeze after the main casting in
turbulence as the metal flows into down- order to satisfy its function
sprue
 Core

Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of part

 Inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the core
to form the casting's external and internal surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during pouring,
called chaplets
 The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the cast part
 In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces, determined by a core,
placed inside the mold cavity to define the interior geometry of part
 In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XlRK_SMWX7Y

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwaXCko_Tkw
 Heating, Pouring and
Solidification of Metal for Casting

 HEATING furnaces are used  For POURING step to be SOLIDIFICATION is the

to heat the metal to molten successful, metal must transformation of molten
temperature sufficient for flow into all regions of the metal back into solid
casting mold, most importantly state
 The heat required is the sum the main cavity, before  Solidification differs
of: solidifying depending on whether
1. Heat to raise  Factors that determine the metal is
temperature to melting success  A pure element or
point  Pouring temperature  An alloy
2. Heat of fusion to  Pouring rate
convert from solid to  Turbulence
liquid
3. Heat to raise molten
metal to desired
temperature for pouring
 Furnaces for Casting Processes

 Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:

 Cupolas
 Direct fuel‑fired furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric‑arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces
 Cupolas

Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with

tapping spout near base
 Used only for cast irons
 Although other furnaces are also
used, the largest tonnage of cast
iron is melted in cupolas
 The "charge," consisting of iron, coke,
flux, and any alloying elements, is
loaded through a charging door
located less than halfway up height of
Cupola Furnace
cupola
 Induction Furnaces

 Uses alternating current passing

through a coil to develop magnetic
field in metal
 Induced current causes rapid
heating and melting
 Electromagnetic force field also
causes mixing action
 Since metal does not contact
heating elements, environment can
be closely controlled to produce Induction Furnace
molten metals of high quality and
purity
 Common alloys: steel, cast iron, https://slideplayer.com/slide/9670474/

and aluminum
https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=melting_furnaces
 Shell Molding or Shell Mold
Casting
In this process castings are produced by using the thin shell mold of sand where
sand particles are held together by thermosetting resin binder
Step (1) A metal pattern is heated and Step (2) Box is inverted so that sand and Step (3) Box is repositioned
placed over a box containing sand resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a so loose uncured particles
mixed with thermosetting resin layer of the mixture to partially cure on the drop away
surface to form a hard shell

Step (6) Two halves

of the shell mold are
assembled, supported
by sand or metal shot
in a box, and pouring
is accomplished Step (5) shell mold is stripped Step (4) Sand shell is heated in oven
from pattern for several minutes to complete curing
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (7) Finished casting with sprue removed

Most of industrial products like Gearbox housing, connecting rod,

small size boats, truck hoods, cylindrical head, Camshaft, valve
body etc. are made by shell moulding.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=44R2IbzTvt4
 Shell Molding: Advantages and
Disadvantages

 Advantages:
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish of castings
 Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
 Can be mechanized for mass production

 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities
 Investment Casting
(or Lost Wax Process)
In this casting
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make
the mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten
metal.

 "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" -

"to cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory
material around wax pattern

 It is a precision casting process which is capable of producing

castings of high accuracy and intricate detail
 Steps in Investment Casting

 (1) Wax patterns are produced  (5) Mold is held in an inverted position and
heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip
 (2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue
out of the cavity
to form a pattern tree
 (3) Pattern tree is coated with a thin  (6) Mold is preheated to a high

layer of refractory material temperature, the molten metal is poured,

and it solidifies
 (4) Full mold is formed by covering
 (7) Mold is broken away from the finished
the coated tree with sufficient
casting and the parts are separated from
refractory material to make it rigid
the sprue
 Applications
-cast small size casting having intricate shape.
-form jewellery and surgical equipment.
-cast complex shapes like turbine blades, bolt
and trigger for fire arm etc.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVsJlWEzZY8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9BmGnUZyy2o
 Investment Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 This is a net shape process
 Additional machining is not normally required
 Disadvantages:
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process
 Slip Casting of Ceramics

A slip is a suspension of clay and/or other nonplastic

materials in water. When poured into a porous mold https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibXa2oIdNFk
(commonly made of plaster of paris), water from the slip
is absorbed into the mold, leaving behind a solid layer on
the mold wall, the thickness of which depends on the
time. This process may be continued until the entire mold
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LgOu5cvIQp8
cavity becomes solid (solid casting), as demonstrated in
Figure.
Plaster of paris is used as mold material.
Slip Casting is followed by Drying and then Firing https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7AWJ9fexYOc

Slip casting is a specialized way of using plaster moulds for mass https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sex4zYrXQCk
production of ceramics. The word "slip" means a single clay or a
mixture of clays and other materials that has been mixed with enough
water to make it liquid, so that it can be poured into a plaster mould.
 Solid Slip Casting Drain Slip Casting

In this method the mould forms both the inner The slip casting process shown in Fig. produces
and outer face of the cast. The advantage is, a hollow item which outside has the shape of the
that all casts will be identical and the cast can mould. This process is called drain casting
have walls of varied thickness. Solid casting because the moulds are emptied of excess slip.
moulds are more complicated to make and they
are mainly used for high quality ware and for
items that need to be of uniform size.
Drain Slip Casting
 Permanent Mold
Casting Processes
 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:
 A new mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting
 The Basic Permanent Mold
Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two
sections designed for easy, precise
opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower
melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast
iron (1) Mold is preheated and (2) Cores (if any are
 Molds material should have high coated for lubrication and used) are inserted and
resistance to erosion and thermal heat dissipation mold is closed
fatigue

(3) Molten metal is poured into

the mold, where it solidifies
 Permanent Mold Casting/Gravity Die Casting

Example of a Permanent Mold

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/permanent-mold-casting
 Permanent Mold Casting:
Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in
a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
 Applications and Metals for
Permanent Mold Casting

 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly

 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and

certain castings for aircraft and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper
Extra ‑base alloys,
Readings and cast iron
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/permanent-mold-
casting
 Die Casting

A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold
cavity under high pressure, and solidified to make cast part
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and part is
removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what distinguishes this
from other permanent mold processes
M  Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or marging steel
O  Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
L  Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to prevent sticking
D

Die Casting Applications:

Die-casting is the largest casting technique that is used to manufacture consumer, commercial and industrial products
like automobiles, toys, parts of sink faucet, connector housing, gears, etc. Most die castings are done from non-ferrous
metals like aluminum, magnesium, etc.
 Die Casting Machines

 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closed
while liquid metal is forced into cavity
 Two main types: Hot-chamber machine Cold ‑chamber machine
Hot‑chamber Die Casting Cold‑chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
injects liquid metal under high pressure from external melting container, and a piston
into the die injects metal under high pressure into die
 High production rates cavity
 500 parts per hour not uncommon  High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring
 Applications limited to low
step
melting‑point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and other  Casting metals: aluminum, brass, copper and
mechanical components magnesium alloys
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead
 Certain types of metals — those with a high melting point — can
only be processed using cold-chamber die casting. The high
temperatures required to achieve a molten state for metals such as
aluminum, magnesium and copper means a separate furnace must
be used, which is why some manufacturers choose cold-chamber die
casting over hot-chamber die casting.

Hot-chamber die casting uses the same process Based on its name, you may assume that cold-chamber
previously mentioned — molten metal is forced die casting involves forcing cold metal through the
through the cavity of a pre-shaped mold using cavity of a mold, but this isn’t necessarily true. Cold-
pressure. The defining characteristic of hot-chamber chamber die casting still requires the use of molten metal
die casting is that metal is heated inside the casting that’s forced into a mold. The difference between these
machine rather than a separate machine or furnace. two processes is that hot-chamber die casting heats metal
Also known as goose-neck machines, hot-chamber inside the casting machine, whereas cold-chamber die
casting machines feature a built-in furnace in which casting involves heating metal in a separate furnace and
metal is heated to achieve a molten state. They use a then transferring the newly molten metal into the casting
hydraulic-powered piston that forces molten metal out machine.
of the furnace and into the die. Hot-chamber die With cold-chamber die casting, metal is first heated to
casting is a relatively fast process, with a typical cycle achieve a molten state in a separate furnace. The molten
lasting just 15 to 20 minutes. While not suitable for metal is then transported to the casting machine where
metals with a high melting point, it’s ideal for zinc it’s fed into the machine’s chamber. The machine uses a
alloys, tin alloys and lead alloys. pressurized plunger to force the molten metal into the
cavity of the mold.
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 (1) with die closed and (2) plunger forces metal in (3) Plunger is withdrawn, die
plunger withdrawn, chamber to flow into die, is opened, and casting is
molten metal flows into maintaining pressure during ejected
the chamber cooling and solidification.
 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
https://www.cwmdiecast.com/blog/2016/05/24/die-casting-101-hot-chamber-vs-cold-chamber/

(1) With die closed and ram withdrawn,

molten metal is poured into the chamber
(2) Ram forces metal to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification

(3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is

ejected
Advantages of Die Casting:

Economical process that can be used for a wide range of complex

application
Parts have longer service life, dimensional accuracy and close
tolerance
Post machining can be totally eliminated
A process that can be fully automated
Mold can be use repeatedly.
 Centrifugal Casting

A family of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at high speed

so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
 The group includes:

 True centrifugal casting

 Semicentrifugal casting

 Centrifuge casting
The centrifugal casting process marginally differs between the three types but can be
generalised into the following steps.
• The mould wall is coated with a refractory ceramic coating. In the case of True
centrifugal casting mould, it involves applying ceramic slurry while spinning, drying
and then baking.

• Molten metal from an external source is directly poured into the mould without any
gating system through a spout.

• The molten material for the casting can be poured into a rotating mould or the mould
can be rotated after it has been poured.

• The rotating mould’s centrifugal forces drive the molten material to the cavity’s outside
wall once it’s inside.

• Once the desired amount of molten metal is poured, the mould continuously spins
until the part is entirely hardened.

• The mould is removed and opened after the casting has solidified and the casting is
removed.
 True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part

 In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather
than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but
inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4vkUHb91H0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUjOhtXCoro
Molten metal is poured into a rotating horizontal
mould to produce tubular parts such as pipes,
tubes, rings, and bushes in this casting process.
Mould rotation can take place on a horizontal or
vertical axis, with the former being more common.
The revolving speed of the horizontal true
centrifugal casting is critical to the effectiveness of
the casting process and part quality.
Moulds are made of steel, iron, or graphite, and they can be
coated with a refractory lining to extend their life. The surfaces of
the moulds are designed to allow for pipe casting with a range of
outside styles. The inner surface of the casting remains
cylindrical due to centrifugal forces that evenly distribute the
molten metal.
Castings produced by true centrifugal casting have a high
density, particularly in the outer portions of the component where
centrifugal force is highest. Because centrifugal force
constantly reallocates molten metal toward the mould wall
during freezing, solidification shrinkage at the cast tube’s
outside is not an issue. Any imperfections in the casting tend to
be on the inner wall and, if necessary, can be eliminated by
machining.
 How does True centrifugal
casting work?

Molten metal is poured straight into the mould

without any gating mechanism.
Once within the hollow, the centrifugal forces of the
spinning mould propel the molten material to the
cavity’s exterior wall.
After the necessary amount of molten metal has
been poured, the mould is rotated until the part is
hardened.
After the casting has been set, the mould is
removed, opened, and the part removed for post-
processing .
 Semicentrifugal Casting

Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts

 Molds use risers at center to supply

feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is
greater in outer sections than at center
of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center
of casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality
is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys
 How does semi centrifugal
casting work?

As shown above, the expendable mould is set

up around the central sprue.
Molten metal is then poured into the sprue
slowly from an external source using a small
spout.
The molten material may be poured into a
rotating mould, or the rotation of the mould may
commence after the pouring has taken place.
Pouring stops once the correct amount of molten
metal for the casting, runner and sprue is
poured.
The spinning continues after the pouring and
distribution and during the solidification process.
The equipment will stop rotating after the
castings have completely frozen, and the pieces
may be removed.
It is similar to true centrifugal casting but only with a
difference that a central core is used to form the inner
surface. Semi- centrifugal casting setup is shown in
Fig. This casting process is generally used for articles
which are more complicated than those possible in true
centrifugal casting, but are axi-symmetric in nature. A
particular shape of the casting is produced by mold and
core and not by centrifugal force. The centrifugal force
aids proper feeding and helps in producing the castings
free from porosity. The article produced by this process
is shown in Fig. Symmetrical objects namely wheel
having arms like flywheel,
gears and back wheels are produced by this process.
 Centrifuge Casting

Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of rotation, so
molten metal poured into mold is distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts- jewellery, small bushes, sleaves etc.
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal casting
methods
 How does Centrifuge casting
work?

The mould is built to have the cavities around

the central sprue with runners connecting them.
Molten metal is then poured into the sprue
slowly from an external source using a small
spout.
The molten material may be poured into a
rotating mould, or the rotation of the mould may
commence after the pouring has taken place.
The pouring stops once the correct amount of
molten metal for the number of castings, runner
and sprue is poured.
The spinning continues after the pouring and
distribution and during the solidification process.
The mould will be stopped and the components
will be removed after the castings have been
set.
Centrifuging casting setup is shown in Fig. This casting
process is generally used for producing non-
symmetrical small castings having intricate details. A
number of such small jobs are joined together by
means of a common radial runner with a central sprue
on a table which is possible in a vertical direction of
mold rotation. The sample article produced by this
process is depicted in Fig.

In this process there are several mould cavities

connected with a central sprue with radial gates. It is
used to cast shapes which are not axi symmetrical.
This is only suitable for small objects.
 Additional Steps After
Solidification

 Trimming

 Removing the core

 Surface cleaning

 Inspection

 Repair, if required

 Heat treatment
 Casting Defects

Defects in Casting are unwanted

irregularities that appear in the casting Types
during metal casting process. There is Casting defects can be categorized
various reason or sources which is into 5 types
responsible for the defects in the cast 1. Gas Porosity: Blowholes, open
metal. holes, pinholes
Some of the defects produced may be 2. Shrinkage defects: shrinkage
neglected or tolerated and some are not cavity
acceptable, it must be eliminated for better 3. Mold material defects: Cut and
functioning of the parts. washes, swell, drops, metal
penetration, rat tail
4. Pouring metal defects: Cold shut,
misrun, slag inclusion
5. Metallurgical defects: Hot tears,
hot spot.
Shift or Mismatch
The defect caused due to misalignment of upper and lower part of the casting and
misplacement of the core at parting line.

Cause:
(i) Improper alignment of upper
and lower part during mold
preparation.
(ii) Misalignment of flask (a flask is
type of tool which is used to
contain a mold in metal casting. it Remedies
may be square, round, (i) Proper alignment of the pattern or
rectangular or of any convenient die part, molding boxes.
shape.) (ii) Correct mountings of pattern on
pattern plates.
(iii) Check the alignment of flask.
 Swell
It is the enlargement of the mold cavity because of the molten metal pressure,
which results in localised or overall enlargement of the casting.

Cause:
(i) Defective or improper
ramming of the mold.

Remedies
(i) The sand should be rammed properly
and evenly.
Blowholes
When gases entrapped on the surface of the casting due to solidifying metal, a
rounded or oval cavity is formed called as blowholes. These defects are always
present in the cope part of the mold.
Remedies
(i) The moisture content in the sand
must be controlled and kept at desired
level.
Causes (ii) High permeability sand should be
(i) Excessive moisture in the used.
sand. (iii) Sand of appropriate grain size
(ii) Low Permeability of the sand. should be used.
(iii) Sand grains are too fine. (iv) Sufficient ramming should be
(iv) Too hard rammed sand. done.
(v) Insufficient venting is (v) Adequate venting facility should be
provided. provided.
Metal Penetration
These casting defects appear as an uneven and rough surface of the casting.
When the size of sand grains is larged, the molten fuses into the sand and solidifies
giving us metal penetration defect.

Causes
(i) It is caused due to low strength, large
grain size, high permeability and soft
ramming of sand. Because of this the
molten metal penetrates in the molding
sand and we get rough or uneven casting
surface.
Remedies

(ii) This defect can be eliminated by using

high strength, small grain size, low
permeability and soft ramming of sand.
Pinholes
They are very small holes of about 2 mm in size which appears on the surface of
the casting. This defect happens because of the dissolution of the hydrogen gases
in the molten metal. When the molten metal is poured in the mold cavity and as it
starts to solidify, the solubility of the hydrogen gas decreases and it starts escaping
out the molten metal leaves behind small number of holes called as pinholes.
Causes
(i) Use of high moisture content sand.
(ii) Absorption of hydrogen or carbon monoxide gas by molten
metal.
(iii) Pouring of steel from wet ladles or not sufficiently gasified.
Remedies
(i) By reducing the moisture content of the molding sand.
(ii) Good fluxing and melting practices should be used.
(iii) Increasing permeability of the sand.
(iv) By doing rapid rate of solidification.
Cold Shut
It is a type of surface defects and a line on the surface can be seen. When the
molten metal enters into the mold from two gates and when these two streams of
molten metal meet at a junction with low temperatures than they do not fuse with
each other and solidifies creating a cold shut (appear as line on the casting). It
looks like a crack with round edge.

Causes
(i) Poor gating system
(ii) Low melting temperature
(iii) Lack of fluidity
Remedies
(i) Improved gating system.
(ii) Proper pouring temperature.
Misrun
When the molten metal solidifies before completely filling the mold cavity and
leaves a space in the mold called as misrun.

Causes
(i) Low fluidity of the molten metal.
(ii) Low temperature of the molten metal
which decreases its fluidity.
(iii) Too thin section and improper gating
system.
Remedies
(i) Increasing the pouring temperature of
the molten metal increases the fluidity.
(ii) Proper gating system
(iii) Too thin section is avoided.
Hot Tears or Hot Cracks
when the metal is hot it is weak and the residual stress (tensile) in the material
cause the casting fails as the molten metal cools down. The failure of casting in
this case looks like cracks and called as hot tears or hot cracking.
Causes

(i) Improper mold design.

Remedies

(i) Proper mold design can easily eliminate

these types of casting defects.
(ii) Elimination of residual stress from the
material of the casting.
 General Defects in Casting:

Misrun Cold Shut

A casting that has solidified Two portions of metal flow
before completely filling mold together but there is a lack of
cavity fusion due to premature
freezing
 Cold Shot Shrinkage Cavity
Metal splatters during pouring Depression in surface or
and solid globules form and internal void caused by
become entrapped in casting solidification shrinkage that
restricts amount of molten
metal available in last region
to freeze