Psychology

Professor Joseph Lavallee

lavallee@mail.mcu.edu.tw
 Chapter 2

Research Methods
in Psychology
 5 Key Research Methods

1. Case Study
2. Naturalistic Observation
3. Survey Research
4. Archival
5. Experiments
1. Case Study
The Strange Case of Phineas Gage
September 13, 1848
 Before the accident…
1. Responsible: Gage was known to be a
reliable and responsible worker.

2. Well-liked: He was popular among his peers

and was considered pleasant to be around.

3. Self-Controlled: He was good at managing

his emotions and behavior.
 After the accident…
1. Impulsive: He became more likely to act on a whim,
without thinking things through.

2. Irritable: Gage became quick to anger and was generally

more irritable than before.

3. Socially Inappropriate: He started to act in ways that

were not socially acceptable, like swearing or being
rude.

4. Unreliable: He was no longer considered dependable in

his work or personal life.
 The part of his brain that was damaged was the
prefrontal cortex, part of the frontal lobe. What does
his case suggest about the function of this area?
 BUT
• Limited and Incomplete Medical Records
• Anecdotal Evidence (stories and second-hand accounts)
• No Psychological Baseline: There's limited information
about Gage's personality and behavior before the
accident
• Later Life: Some records suggest that Gage adapted to
his injuries over time and became more functional,
which complicates the narrative that his personality was
permanently altered.
 Problems with Case Studies
• Limited Generalizability: Case studies focus on one
individual or a small group.

• Subjectivity: Researchers' or participants' biases could

affect the findings.

• Incomplete or Inaccurate Data

• Lack of Control: Unlike controlled experiments, case

studies don't allow researchers to control for outside
factors.
2. Naturalistic
Observation
 Naturalistic Observation:
Jane Goodall - Chimpanzees
 Thanks to her amazing work, we know that
chimpanzees…

• Use tools
• Communicate with vocalizations and gestures
• Experience emotions
• Have strong mother-child bonds
• Have individual personalities
• Have complex social structures
• Have conflict and ‘wars’ between groups
 As we’ll see…

• The more we understand

chimpanzee behavior, the better
we can understand the possible
evolutionary sources of our own
behavior
 2 Naturalistic Observation

• The best way to observe natural behavior

is to do so in its natural setting!
• BUT if people know they’re being
observed, they may change their behavior
– so secrecy is often used
• Observer Bias - also a problem; we often
’see’ what we expect to see
3. Surveys
 3 Surveys

• Can gather information about an entire

population by asking questions of a
smaller sample from that population
Sex differences in
human mate
preferences
(Buss, 1989)
 METHOD

Surveyed 10,047 people (mean age = 23.05).

4601 men (mean age = 23.49)
5446 women (mean age = 22.52)

37 Samples from 33 countries on 6 contintents and 5

islands.
 Age and Fertility

Fertility is defined as the probability of

giving birth.

In humans, fertility for women peaks in the

early 20s

Buss wanted to see if men tend to be

attracted to women at their peak level of
fertility.
 METHOD

Asked them questions including:

Age at which they hope to marry

Age difference between self & partner
 RESULTS

MEN hoped to get married at the age of

27.5 years and marry women who were
about 24.8 years old.

WOMEN hoped to get married at the age

of 25.4 years and to marry men who were
about 28.8 years old.
 Discussion

Men around the world ARE attracted to

women in their early 20s, suggesting that
fertility may be the key.

What about women?

4. Archival Research
 4 Archival Research
• Use existing records
 James Flynn & Archival Research

• An American research in New

Zealand, James Flynn was
analyzing IQ tests from different
countries over many years
(1930s to 1990s)
• Included people of the same age
at different points in history
• Guess what he discovered!
 The FLYNN EFFECT

• IQ is going up!

• Rise in IQ scores
across the globe of
about 3 points per
decade.
 The FLYNN EFFECT (US Data)
1932 1997

20 IQ Points in 65 Years –
roughly 6 IQ points per generation!
Source: J. Santrock, Educational Psychology
5. Experiments
 The Murder of Kitty Genovese

Kitty Genovese Winston Mosely

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Kitty_Genovese
The Murder of Kitty Genovese
In March 1964, Kitty Genovese
was stabbed and raped in New
York City. She died shortly
thereafter. For 30 minutes, ~12
neighbors listened to her
screams. Some may have seen
part of the attack.
Most did not call the police or
help in any way.
Why didn’t people
do more to help?
 Bystander Effect –
when a witness doesn’t
help a person in need
Diffusion of Responsibility

By Latane and Darley

”Bystander intervention in emergencies:

Diffusion of responsibility."
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1968).
 Hypothesis and Experiment

• HYPOTHESIS. Latane and Darley had the idea

that the number of witnesses will change
behavior. If you are the only witness, you will
probably try to help. But if there are many other
witnesses, you may not.

• EXPERIMENT. They set up a situation that

included a fake emergency and differing numbers
of witness...
 Latane & Darley: Diffusion of Responsibility

• You are asked to sit in a booth alone, taking

part in a conversation using earphones with
a speaker.

• During the conversation, one “person”

(actually a pre-recorded message) said they
were having a seizure and needed
emergency medical help.
 SEIZURE

IMAGE SOURCE: https://drhabibpediatricneurologist.com/seizure-specialist-hyderabad/

 Independent Variable

Control Group / 2 people

Participants were told only 2 people were in the group.
(The second person was the recorded voice, faking an
emergency.)

Experimental Group / 6 people

Participants told that there were 6 people in the group.
 Dependent Variables

Did participants go to get emergency

help?

How long did it take them?

 RESULTS

•Control Group: 85% of participants reported the

seizure when they thought they were the only witness.

•Experimental Group: ONLY 31% reported the seizure

when they believed there were four witnesses.
 The Logic of Science

Instead of using different people in the two

groups, it would be better to use a TIME
MACHINE and put participants in the
control situation first, then go back in time
and put them in the experimental situation,
recording the results each time.

Why would that be better?

Since we don’t have a time
machine,
what can we do instead?
 Random Assignment
All participants have an equal chance to
belong to either group.

(Credit: Research hubs)

 Experiments

Our best hope for

establishing
CAUSALITY!
Homework
 Psychology and the UN SDGs

1. Good Health & Well Being (SDG 3.4, 3.5)

2. Quality Education (SDG 4)

3. Gender Equality (SDG 5)