THE

RESEARCH
PROCESS
INTRODUCTION
The research process is a cyclic
process.
Opportunities for more inventions
and discoveries arise from the cyclic
nature of research.
In essence, it perpetuates the
dynamic nature of science and
ensures its continuous growth.
The Scientific Method
The steps in the research process are the same as
those in the scientific method.
The scientific method is a sequence of problem
solving skills that scientists use to answer questions
or problems.
Some of the skills include identifying a problem,
formulating a hypothesis, doing library research,
observing, performing experiments, analysing data,
drawing conclusions, and communicating results.
The Scientific Method
Start

Identifying a problem

Formulating a hypothesis

Performing experiments and/or making observations

Analyzing data

Is the hypothesis supported by

observations and experiments?
NO NO
The experiment YES The experiment
is faulty. is NOT faulty.
Drawing conclusions

Communicating results
 8 1
Identification
Formulation of
of a research
conclusion
problem
7 2
Analysis and
Formulation of
interpretation
a hypothesis
of processed
data The
Research
Process
6Data collection,
organization,
3
& processing Review of
literature and
studies
5 4
Actual Preparation of
experimentation a research
design
Step 1:
PROBLEM
IDENTIFICATION
Identification of a Research Problem
Research Problem
 It keeps a researcher focused throughout
the entire research process.
 It is the basis of all subsequent research
activities a researcher is going to
undertake.
 It guides a researcher to the hypothesis,
work plan, interpretation of findings, and
to the conclusion.
Checklist of Guidelines in Selecting a
Research Topic
CRITERIA YES / NO
1. Is the problem interesting?
2. Will the research contribute to the solution of socio-
economically important problems?
3. Will the research generate new information?
4. Is the research novel?
5. Do I have the skills or knowledge necessary to conduct the
research or can I learn them within the time I have?
6. Is the research feasible in terms of:
a. time required to finish the research?
b. expense involved in conducting the research?
c. availability of materials for experimentation?
d. accessibility of materials for experimentation?
e. risks and hazards involved in conducting the experiment?
7. Is the research reproducible?
Identification of a Research Problem
Points to consider:
 The statement of the problem must be
clear.
 It must be organized and specific.
 It must define the scope and set the limits
of the problem to help determine the
feasibility of doing the actual
investigation.
Statement of the Problem

 It identifies and specifies the variables to

be measured and observed. (variables:
manipulated, response variables, constant
or controlled)
 It sets the objectives or goals of the study.
It also states the sub-problems.
Example of a Problem:
“Effects of Varying Temperatures and
Concentrations on the Index of Refraction of
Sugar Solution”
The main objective of the study is to find the effects of
temperature and concentration on the index of refraction
of sugar solution. Specifically, this study seeks to find the
effects of (a) varying temperatures on the index of
refraction of sugar solution, and (b) varying
concentrations on the index of refraction of the sugar
solution .
The statement of the problem (above) is clear, organized,
concise, and specific. Its scopes and limits are defined. It
also provides the basis for the formulation of a
hypothesis.
Step 2:
FORMULATION
OF A HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS
 It serves as a tentative solution/answer to a research
question or problem prior to any experimentation
and based on gathered information.
 It serves a guide to the research work plan or
experimental design because it is based on the
objectives of the study.
 It is an educated guess which may be based on factual
knowledge and experiences.
 It is a prediction based on a body of knowledge,
scientific theory or observations.
FORMS OF
HYPOTHESES:
a. Null Hypothesis
b. Alternative Hypothesis
c. Cause & Effect Statement
NULL HYPOTHESIS
 It indicates the value of the
population parameter to be
tested.
 It is the hypothesis of “no
difference” and is formulated for
the sole purpose of being rejected
 It is denoted by H0.
ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESIS
 It is the operational statement of
the researcher’s research
hypothesis.
 It is taken to be true or accepted if
the null hypothesis is rejected.
 It is denoted by Ha.
EXAMPLES:
 In the research problem identified earlier: “The Effects of
Varying Temperatures and Concentrations on the Index
Refraction of Sugar Solution”

Null Hypothesis: Varying temperatures have no

significant effect on the index refraction of a sugar
solution.
Alternative Hypothesis: Varying temperatures have a
significant effect on the index refraction of a sugar
solution.
Cause and Effect Hypothesis: If temperature is varied,
then the index of refraction of a sugar solution is
affected.
Step 3:
Review of
Literature
Review of Literature
 It helps in formulating creative
procedures for solving research
problems.
 It is a preliminary survey through
reading various publications, books,
journals, and surfing the internet.
 It ensures non-duplication of other
peoples’ studies.
Step 4:
Preparation of a
RESEARCH
DESIGN
Research Design
 It is the work plan
that indicates how
resources are utilized
to answer a problem.
 It is a complete sequence
of steps or procedures
that need to be followed
when obtaining the
needed data during an
investigation.
 It serves as a guide during
the actual experimentation
which minimizes the cost of
experimentation and
maximizing the gathered
information relevant to the
problem.
 It validates the statistical
test because it takes into
consideration all the
assumptions that went
through the process of
deriving the various
statistics.
 It is embodied in a
research proposal which
is a written plan about
what the researcher
proposes to do in his
investigation.
Planning a Research Design
 The researcher identifies the subject
of the study, the variables, the
controls, the experimental and
control groups, the instruments and
devices to be used in the experiment,
and the statistical tools needed for the
analysis of the data collected.
 The SUBJECT or EXPERIMENTAL
UNIT of the study is the main
material used in an experiment. It
can be a person, an animal, a plot in a
field, a plant, a leaf, or a model of a
device. This may be subjected to
treatments depending upon the
objectives of the study. A
TREATMENT denotes any
procedure done on the experimental
unit.
Principles of a Research Design
 1. Replication – is a very necessary element
in a research design wherein the
experiment is repeated for several times to
find an estimate of variations among
observations on the group of subjects
treated alike. It allows a researcher to
assess the significance of the observed
differences and will make statistical test of
significance possible.
 2. Randomization – refers to the
assignment of the experimental subjects to
the treatments by chance. It is done to
create equivalent groups prior to the
experiment. It tends to average out
differences among groups and reduces
possible bias in comparative experiments.
It assures a valid or unbiased estimate of
population parameters and the validity of
the statistical test of significance.
 3. Local Control – is done when balancing,
grouping, and blocking of experimental
units are employed in the adopted design.
Experimental units are allocated to a block
in such a manner that the units within the
block are relatively homogenous.
Experimental units may be blocked
according to certain characteristics such as
height, age, weight, gender, grade level, pH
level, etc.
4. Control of Extraneous
Variables – outside or
extraneous variables may
affect the experimental
subjects, so control of these
variables is necessary.
Types of Research Design
 1. Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
Treatments are assigned randomly to the
experimental subjects without restriction.
These subjects should be homogenous with
respect to all the other factors which could
affect the treatments being compared if they
were not controlled.
 The CRD is flexible and is limited
only by the number of experimental
subjects. It is therefore possible that the
number of replicates per treatment is not
the same for the different groups.
It is appropriate to use CRD if the
experimental subjects have the same
characteristics and if several drop-outs
are expected.
Example of CRD:
Let us say an experiment involves 3 treatments and each
treatment is replicated 6 times. This means that the total number of
experimental units is 3 x 6 = 18. each experimental unit will be
assigned a number from 1 to 18. Treatments can now be randomly
assigned to the experimental units.
The configuration of the design will be the following:

Experimental units are randomly assigned

Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3

3, 9, 4, 5, 7, 1, 8, 10, 2,
11, 13, 17 14, 16, 18 6, 12, 15
Types of Research Design
 2. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)
It divides the experimental subjects into more or less
homogenous groups called BLOCKS. Blocking is done to make sure
that the experimental subjects in a group have similar
characteristics so that the observed differences among the groups
will be largely due to the treatments. It gives more accurate results
than the CRD. There are no restrictions as to the number of
treatments or number of blocks in the experiments.
It is characterized by blocks of equal sizes and that reduces
experimental error.
The RCBD is most appropriate to use if (1) the subjects can
be categorized according to certain characteristics like gender, age,
weight and height which can affect comparison of treatments; and
(2) a few drop-outs are expected.
Example of RCBD:
How will you design an experiment with 4 treatments replicated 3
times?
Randomization will be done block by block using a table of
random numbers. In this experiment, there will be 3 blocks since there are
3 replicates. In each block, 4 treatments are assigned randomly to each of
the 4 subjects. For the 1st block, we get the following:
Random No. Subject Rank Treatment
920 1 4 A
770 2 3 B
243 3 1 C
106 4 2 D

Group No. Block 1

1 Treatment C The same will be
2 Treatment D done for the rest of
3 Treatment B the blocks.
4 Treatment A
Step 5:
Actual
Experimentation
Actual Experimentation
It is an implementation
of the research work
plan or design.
Experiment
It is an activity that generates
observations or data which, upon
processing and analysis, result to
the solution of the research
problem or generate further
studies.
During the actual
experimentation, the
observation or data collected
can be processed and
analyzed to attain the
objectives of the research.
Step 6:
Data Analysis &
Interpretation
Data Analysis &
Interpretation
Data gathered are
organized into tables and
graphs before they are
analyzed using statistical
methods.
The statistical conclusions can
be explained further in terms
of the research objectives.
This explanation is a simpler
presentation of the meaning
of the statistical conclusions.
Appropriate Statistics for the Different
Scales of Measurement
Appropriate Examples of
Scale of Relations being
statistical test to be statistics that can
Measurement defined
used be used

Mode, Frequency
Nominal Equivalence Nonparametric Test
Chi-Square Test

Equivalence, Median, Spearman

Rank, Friedmann’s
Ordinal greater than, less Nonparametric Test Test, Kendall’s Tau
than Percentile

Equivalence, greater Mean, Standard

than, less than, known Nonparametric and Deviation, z-test, t-
Interval ratio of any two parametric Tests test, ANOVA,
intervals Pearson’s r

Mean, Standard
Equivalence, greater Nonparametric and Deviation, Coefficient of
Ratio than, less than, known
Variation, Pearson’s r, z-
ratio of any two ratios parametric Tests
test, t-test, ANOVA
Step 7:
Formulation of a
Conclusion
Conclusion
It summarizes the significant
results of the experiment.
Research must come to an end
and thus, a conclusion must be
stated for each research.
The conclusion does not only
end the research but also
suggests future questions left
unanswered in the course of
the investigation.
These unresolved questions
lead to new researches.
Knowing the objectives and
the conclusion, the reader can
evaluate the merit of the
completed research.