Introduction to Sociology

Module 1: Foundations of Sociology

 Why It Matters: Foundations of Sociology

• We are all members of society and we all experience a variety of social interactions
every day
• Sociology complements many other subject areas and is pertinent to every aspect of
your life
• You are an individual within society but also a member of several social groups that
interact constantly and part of social institutions
Sociology

• Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human groups

• Sub-sections of study range from analysis of conversations to the development of theories and
explaining how the world works
What is Sociology?
• Sociology is the study of groups and group interactions, societies and social
interactions
• A group is any collection of at least two people who interact with some
frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity
• A society is a group of people who live in a defined geographic area who
interact and share a common culture
• Sociologists study small groups and individual interactions from the micro-
level and trends among and between large groups and societies on the macro-
level
• Culture refers to the group’s shared practices, values, and beliefs
• Sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills): an awareness of the relationship
between one’s behavior and experience and the wider culture that shaped a
person’s choices and perceptions
What is Sociology, continued (1)
• Reification is an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real,
material existence
• All sociologists are interested in the experiences of individuals and how they are
shaped by interactions with social groups and society as a whole
• Cultural patterns and social forces put pressure on people to select one choice
over another
• Changes in the U.S. family structure present an example of changing patterns
that interest sociologists
• Sociologists study social facts that are aspects of social life shaping a person’s
behavior and can include laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs,
fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life
What is Sociology, continued (2)
• Sociologists might also study the consequences of new patterns such as the ways
children are affected by them or changing needs for education, housing, and
healthcare
• SNAP benefits offer another example of how sociologists identify and study social
trends
• Research has found that there is a strong stigma or attribute that is deeply
discrediting attached to the use of SNAP benefits
• The strength of the SNAP stigma is linked to the general economic climate
• Part of the sociological imagination is that the individual and society are inseparable
and must be studied together
• Norbert Elias called the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of
individuals and society that shapes the behavior figuration, which can be seen in the
practice of religion
The Development of Sociology

• Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857), coined the term sociology

• The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution greatly impacted Comte
• Comte believed that society developed in stages:
• Theological stage where people took religious views of society
• Metaphysical stage where people understood society as natural
• Scientific or positivist stage where society is governed by reliable
knowledge understood in light of scientific knowledge (mainly
sociology)
• Positivism is the scientific study of social patterns
• Comte’s lasting contribution to sociology has been his classification of
sciences
Harriet Martineau
• Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876) was a writer who addressed a wide range of social
science issues
• She was an early observer of social practices, including economics, social class,
religion, suicide, government, and women’s rights
• She translated Comte’s writing from French to English and introduced sociology to
English-speaking scholars
• She is also credited with the first systematic methodological international
comparisons of social institutions with works Society in America(1837) and
Retrospect of Western Travel (1838)
• She pointed out the faults with the free enterprise system in which workers were
exploited and impoverished while business owners became wealthy
• Martineau was often discounted in her own time by the male domination of academic
sociology
Karl Marx
• Karl Marx (1818 - 1883): German philosopher and economist who coauthored The
Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels, one of the most influential political
manuscripts in history
• Marx rejected Comte’s positivism, believing societies grew and changed as a result of the
struggles of different social classes over the means of production
• Marx predicted that inequalities of capitalism would become so extreme that workers would
eventually revolt and result in the collapse of capitalism and rise of communism
• Communism is an economic system under which there is no private or corporate ownership
but with everything distributed as needed
• Marx’s idea that social conflict leads to change in society remains a major theory used in
modern sociology
Émile Durkheim
• Émile Durkheim (1858 – 1917): Helped establish sociology as a formal academic disciple
by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in
1895 and publishing Rules of the Sociological Method in 1895
• Durkheim laid out his theory on how societies transformed from a primitive state into a
capitalist, industrial society with the belief that people rise to their proper level in society
based on merit
• Durkheim believed that sociologists could study objective “social facts” and that healthy
societies are stable while pathological societies experience a breakdown in social norms
between individuals and society
Max Weber
• Max Weber (1864 – 1920) was a prominent German sociologist who wrote on many
sociological topics
• His best known book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
• Weber believed that the influence of culture on human behavior had to be taken into
account
• Verstehen: concept meaning to understand in a deep way and that in seeking verstehen,
outside observers attempt to understand it from an insider’s point of view
• Weber and others proposed antipositivism whereby social researchers strive for
subjectivity and has an aim to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social
worlds
• Differences between positivism and antipositivism have been considered the foundation
for the differences between quantitative (like surveys with many participants) and
qualitative (like in-depth interviews, focus groups, content analysis
American Theorists and Practitioners
• W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963): pioneered rigorous
empirical methodology; helped found the NAACP
• Thorstein Veblen (1857 – 1929): studied various classes
and differences in employment status
• Jane Addams (1860-1935): founded the Hull House and
promoted social and educational programs; helped
sociological research on child labor, health care,
immigration, and more.
• Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929): coined the idea of
the “looking-glass self” as we perceive ourselves how we
think others see us
• George Herbert Mead (1863–1931): one of the founders
of symbolic interactionism who emphasized our personal
view is influenced by interactions with others.
Ida B. Wells-Barnett
• Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862 - 1931): born in Mississippi and eventually
became a teacher in a black elementary school so that she could support
her five other siblings
• In 1884, Wells refused to give up her seat on a train and was dragged
from the car
• Wells fought the case and lost but strengthened her passion for equality
and social justice
• She became one of the most vocal anti-lynching activists after three
friends were lynched
• Wells was one of the founding members of the NAACP and worked to
have full inclusion for black women in the Women’s Suffrage Movement
• Wells was the epitome of a public sociologist because of her focus on
inequalities though not formally trained
Why Study Sociology?
• Sociologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark influenced the U.S.
Supreme court landmark decision in Brown vs. the Board of
Education
• The field of sociology consists of people interested in
contributing to the body of knowledge as well as those
interested in both the study and improvement of society
• Sociology has played a crucial role in desegregation, gender
equality in the workplace, improved treatment of individuals
with disabilities, and the rights of native populations
• Sociology can teach people ways to recognize how they fit
into the world and how others perceive them and increase
awareness of differences
Sociology in the Workplace
• Studying sociology can provide people with much desired knowledge and education that can
contribute to many workplaces:
• an understanding of social systems and large bureaucracies
• the ability to devise and carry out research projects
• the ability to collect, read, and analyze statistical information
• the ability to recognize important differences
• skills in preparing reports and communicating complex ideas
• the capacity for critical thinking
• Sociology prepares people for a wide variety of careers include government agencies and
corporations
Practice Question 1
What is Sociology?

a. The study of personal choices and behavior.

b. The study of cultures and ways of life.
c. The study of society and social interaction.
d. The study of personality and social behavior.
Practice Question 1 Answer
What is Sociology?

a. The study of personal choices and behavior.

b. The study of cultures and ways of life.
c. The study of society and social interaction.
d. The study of personality and social behavior.

Explanation of answer:
Sociology is the study of social behavior and human groups. Sociologists study
how society effects people and how people effect society.
Practice Question 2

Which of the following statements best aligns with what a sociologist might
say?

a. Personal decisions an individual makes do not exist in a vacuum.

b. Large groups of people living in the same society and experiencing
the same social pressures will not act in predictable ways.
c. It is important to study the individual without the society.
d. Each person is unique and makes their own choices.
Practice Question 2 Answer
Which of the following statements best aligns with what a sociologist might say?

a. Personal decisions an individual makes do not exist in a vacuum.

b. Large groups of people living in the same society and experiencing
the same social pressures will not act in predictable ways.
c. It is important to study the individual without the society.
d. Each person is unique and makes their own choices.

Explanation of answer:
Sociologists believe that cultural and and social forces put pressure on people to
make one decision over another. As such, personal decisions do not exist in a
vacuum.
Practice Question 3
This British sociologist translated Comte’s work into English, which made sociological topics
more accessible to the English-speaking world. This person also found American capitalism
and the inequality of women to be at odds with the country’s professed moral principles. Who
does this describe?

a. Auguste Comte
b. Harriet Martineau
c. Karl Marx
d. W.E.B. DuBois
Practice Question 3 Answer
This British sociologist translated Comte’s work into English, which made sociological topics more accessible to
the English-speaking world. This person also found American capitalism and the inequality of women to be at
odds with the country’s professed moral principles. Who does this describe?

a. Auguste Comte
b. Harriet Martineau
c. Karl Marx
d. W.E.B. DuBois

Explanation of answer:
Martineau was the first to translate Comte’s writing from French to English and in doing so
introduced sociology to English-speaking scholars. She found capitalism at odds with the
professed moral principles of the United States, and she noted that the belief in all things
being created equal was inconsistent with the lack of women’s rights.
Practice Question 4
Which scholar focused on the struggles among groups in society and felt that social conflict
leads to societal change?

a. Karl Marx
b. Herbert Spencer
c. Émile Durkheim
d. Max Weber
Practice Question 4 Answer
Which scholar focused on the struggles among groups in society and felt that social conflict leads to societal
change?

a. Karl Marx
b. Herbert Spencer
c. Émile Durkheim
d. Max Weber

Explanation of answer:
Marx believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different
social classes over the means of production. Marx predicted that the inequalities of
capitalism would become so extreme that workers would eventually revolt, leading to
the collapse of capitalism and the rise of communism.
Introduction to the Sociological Imagination

• The sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills, 1916 - 1962) provides a

framework for understanding our social world and makes the connection between
personal challenges and larger social issues
• Personal troubles are private problems experienced within the character of the
individual and the range of their immediate relation to others
• Larger social or public issues are those that are outside of one’s personal control
and the range of one’s inner life
• The real power of the sociological imagination is in how we learn to distinguish
between the personal and social levels in our own lives
• A majority of personal problems are not experienced only personally but are also
influenced and affected by social norms, habits, and expectations
Discuss: Sociological Imagination
• What is the sociological
imagination? Illustrate your
definition with an example.
Introduction to Sociological Perspectives
• Sociologists use paradigms to understand the social
world
• A paradigm is a broad viewpoint, perspective, or
lens that permit social scientists to have a wide
range of tools to describe society and then build
hypotheses and theories
• Paradigms can also be considered guiding
principles or belief systems
The Main Sociological Theories
• A sociological theory seeks to explain social phenomena and are used to create a testable
proposition about society, or hypothesis
• Macro-level theories relate to large-scale issues and large groups of people
• Micro-level theories look at very specific relationships between individuals or small groups
• Grand theories attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental
questions about society
• Paradigms are philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to
formulate theories, generalizations, and experiments performed in support of them
• Three paradigms in sociology: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic
interactionism
Structural-Functional Theory
• Structural-functional theory sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet
the biological and social needs of individuals in society
• English philosopher and biologist Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) wrote about the similarities
between society and the human body and argued that as various organs of the body work
together, various parts of society work together to keep society functioning
• These parts of society are social institutions that include patterns of belief and behaviors
focused on meeting social needs
• Émile Durkheim applied Spencer’s theory to explain how societies change and survive over
time
• Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts
working together to maintain stability
• Durkheim believed that sociologists need to look beyond individuals to social facts in order to
study society
Structural-Functional Theory, continued
• Social facts include the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all
of the cultural rules governing social life
• Durkheim also studied social solidarity, social ties within a group, ad hypothesized that
differences in suicide rates might be explained by religion-based differences
• Robert Merton (1910 - 2003) explored the functions of social processes
• Manifest functions are the consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated
• Latent functions are the unsought consequences of a social process and can be beneficial,
neutral, or harmful
• Dysfunctions are the social processes that have undesirable consequences for society
• Criticism includes that structural-functional theory can’t adequately explain social change and
that dysfunctions may continue even if they do not have a function
Conflict Theory
• Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources
• This is a macro-level approach most identified with Karl Marx who saw society as being
made of capitalist (bourgeoisie) an worker (proletariat) classes
• The bourgeoisie control the means of production, leading to exploitation
• False consciousness: the proletariats’ inability to see their position in the class system
• Class consciousness: structural constraints that prevent workers from joining together
create a common group identity of exploited proletariats
• Max Weber expanded Marx’s view to include inequalities of political power and social
structure that is regulated by class differences and rates of social mobility
Conflict Theory, continued
• Ida B. Wells articulated conflict theory through theorized connection between an
increase in lynching and increase in black social mobility
• She also examined competition within the feminist movement as women fought
for the right to vote
• W.E.B. DuBois also examined race in the U.S. and in U.S. colonies from a
conflict perspective and emphasized the importance of a reserve labor force,
made up of black men
• C. Wright Mills used conflict theory to look at systems of power and ways in
which government, military, and corporations formed a power elite in the U.S. in
the 1950s
• Conflict Theory has been criticized for focusing on the conflict to the exclusion
of recognizing stability
Symbolic Interactionist Theory
• Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory focusing on meaning attached to human
interaction, verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols
• Communication is the way in which people make sense of their social worlds
• Looking-glass self (Charles Horton Cooley) describes how a person’s sense of self grows out of
interactions with others
• Threefold process: 1)We see how others react to us 2) We interpret that reaction, and 3) We
develop a sense of self based on those interpretations
• George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931) is considered the founder of symbolic interactionism
Symbolic Interactionist Theory, continued

• Mead’s student, Herbert Blumer, coined the term symbolic interactionism with basic
premises that humans interact with things based on ascribed meanings that arise from
our interactions with others and society and are interpreted by a person
• Mead’s contribution was to the development of self
• Symbolic-interactionists focus on patterns of interactions between individuals
• Dramaturgical analysis (Erving Goffman) used theater as an analogy for social
interaction and recognized interactions as cultural “scripts”
• Constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that
reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be
• Criticism: research has difficulty remaining objective as well the narrow focus on
symbolic interaction
Reviewing Sociological Theories
• Food consumption from a structural-functional approach might be interested in the role of
the agricultural industry within the economy and how it is changed, different functions that
occur in food production, or how food production is related to social solidarity
• A conflict theorist might be interested in the power differentials present in food regulation,
the power and powerlessness experienced by local farmers vs. conglomerates, or how
nutrition varies based on social classes or other groups
• A symbolic interactionist would have more interest in topics such as the symbolic use of
food in religious rituals, food’s role at family dinners, interactions among members
identifying with a particular diet, relationships between farm workers and employees, and
symbolism related to food consumption
Putting It Together: Sociological Foundations

• Sociology can contribute positively in both your personal and professional life
• Due to the diversity of our society and a “shrinking” world, it is likely you will run into
people from distinctly different cultures
• Understanding one another contributes to more peaceful interactions in our daily
interactions
• A solid knowledge of the sociological imagination helps us see connections between
personal experiences and how our life may be impacted by how society views us as
individuals
Practice Question 5
What is a sociological paradigm?

a. A well-founded theory and framework used to explain societies,

and formulate further theories, generalizations, and experiments.
b. A theory that explains small-scale relationships and answers
fundamental questions about relationships between individuals or
small groups.
c. A theoretical framework to describe society with specific aspects
pertaining to different cultures.
d. An educated guess as to the causes of a particular social
phenomena.
Practice Question 5 Answer
What is a sociological paradigm?

a. A well-founded theory and framework used to explain societies, and

formulate further theories, generalizations, and experiments.
b. A theory that explains small-scale relationships and answers fundamental
questions about relationships between individuals or small groups.
c. A theoretical framework to describe society with specific aspects pertaining to
different cultures.
d. An educated guess as to the causes of a particular social phenomena.

Explanation of answer:
”Paradigm” is a term used by sociologists to reflect a broad viewpoint, perspective, set of guiding
principles, or belief systems that allows them to build hypotheses and theories. Sometimes the
word paradigm is used interchangeably with theory, philosophical framework, or approach.
Practice Question 6
Which statement best describes the structural-functional theory?

a. Society is a structure of interrelated parts that meet the needs of

those who live in that society.
b. Society is a competition for scarce resources.
c. Face-to-face relationships among individuals within a society is
very important.
d. One must examine gender to understand human behavior and
society.
Practice Question 6 Answer
Which statement best describes the structural-functional theory?

a. Society is a structure of interrelated parts that meet the needs of

those who live in that society.
b. Society is a competition for scarce resources.
c. Face-to-face relationships among individuals within a society is very
important.
d. One must examine gender to understand human behavior and society.

Explanation of answer:
Structural-functional theory views society as a structure with interrelated parts
designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society.
Practice Question 7
The idea that people ascribe meaning to things based on interactions with others and society
is the main idea behind _________.

a. Symbolic interactionism
b. Conflict theory
c. Structural-functionalism
d. Class theory
Practice Question 7 Answer
The idea that people ascribe meaning to things based on interactions with others and society is the
main idea behind _________.

a. Symbolic interactionism
b. Conflict theory
c. Structural-functionalism
d. Class theory

Explanation of answer:
Symbolic interactionism focuses on how people relate to society and give
meaning to their interactions with others.
Discuss: Micro and Macro-level Theories
• Describe the differences between micro-level and macro-level
theories. Illustrate your point with examples.
Class Activity: Theorists in Conversation
• Create a simulation of a social media conversation between two
different sociological theorists on the nature of society.

Options can include

• Émile Durkheim
• Auguste Comte
• Harriet Martineau
• Karl Marx
• Ida B. Wells-Barnett
• Max Weber
• Structural-Functionalists theorists
• Conflict theorists
• Symbolic Interactionalist theorists
Quick Review
• What is sociology, including some of its central concepts?
• How has sociology developed through the work and theories of classical sociologists?
• What is the value in studying sociology?
• What is sociological imagination?
• How is sociological imagination used?
• What are sociological theories?
• What are the main constructs in structural-functional theory?
Quick Review, continued

• How is structural-functional theory used to understand sociological concepts?

• What is conflict theory?
• How does conflict theory explain sociological concepts?
• What is symbolic interactionism?
• How do symbolic interactionism theorists view sociological concepts?
• What are the differences between theoretical perspectives in the study of a particular social
issue?