CHAPTER 2: METHODS OF

PHILOSOPHIZING
 A. What is truth and why is it important?
It is important to clarify knowledge since it is
through knowing that we are able to determine
what is true. Knowledge is the clear awareness
and understanding of something. It is the product
of questions that allow for clear answers provided
by facts. Our knowledge is comprised of ideas and
beliefs that we know to be true.
Let’s explore your knowledge by completing the following statements:
1. I know that…
2. I know why…
3. I know how…

These statements correspond to one important aspect of knowledge

– that it is based on reality. This simply means that what we know is
what is observable or evident in the real world. For example, we say
that “I know that fish live in water” because fish do live in water.
Propositions or statements which are observed to be real or truthful
are considered facts.
There are statements, however, that are not
evidently or immediately known to be true. For
example, we can say that “I know that my school is
the best school in the city. “ This statement, however,
cannot be taken as true since it is simply not
immediately evident. This statement is a claim, and
further examination is required to establish whether
it is true or false. You may know why reading is a
better activity than playing basketball, but the truth
of your statement will be contested by other people.
B. How do we know if something is true?
There are several views regarding truth. Philosophers emphasize the
importance of belief as a basis for determining truth. But what kind of belief is
truthful? How do we know that we believe is true?

Ancient Greek philosophers approached the problem of truth by looking at the

nature of knowledge and how we know what we know. We assume that
everything we know about this world is true. But philosophers who pondered
upon the origins of knowledge doubted everything that there is to know about
themselves and the world. In doing so, they were able to better understand the
means by which humans gain knowledge and determine the truth about
everything. It is said that there are instances when we have to unlearn
something so that we may learn anew. Philosophers questioned what they knew
and even analyzed their methods of knowing in order to understand themselves
and the world much better.
C. How can philosophy guide us in distinguishing truth from opinion?
The ideas that we encounter in everyday life can be considered as truth
and opinion. But what distinguishes one from the other? Let us take a look at the
following statements and determine which one states fact or opinion.

1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my 2. Living near the school is better because
home we
to school. don’t have to spend much for
transportation.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza pie. 4. My sister is a selfish person because she
ate the
last piece of pizza pie and did not share it
with
me.

5. The policeman firmly pushed the suspect 6. The aggressive manner by which the
to his policeman
knees and placed him in handcuffs. arrested the suspect is an example of the
brutality that characterizes our police
force.
Which column has statements that are more factual? If you answered the first
column, then you are correct. Analyzing closely the statements in that column
using the philosophical tools we learned, we can confidently say that they fit into
the category of facts since they contain ideas or information that are easily
verifiable. For example, verifying the number of minutes it takes for one to walk
from home to school is possible. The second and third statements speak of actions
that can be verified by recalling an experience or providing evidences such as
eyewitness accounts.

The second column, on the other hand, has statements that could be considered
opinions. These statements go beyond providing facts. They also provide
conclusions or perspectives regarding certain situations. Some of the statements
even advance a belief about a certain thing or person. Opinions are also the bases
for making arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a fact.
A conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts. The
facts that form the bases of a conclusion may not be
disputed but the conclusion itself could still be contested
or questioned. Meanwhile, beliefs are statements that
express convictions that are not easily and clearly
explained by facts. If a person states “I believe that God
put me on this earth to spread His message of love”, we
will find it difficult to prove his or her statements as
truthful if we rely merely on facts. To judge the
truthfulness of belief, we must also consider things such as
a person’s experiences and views.
 We should also be aware when statements go beyond the facts
and provide additional ideas and information. For instance, statement
4 provides details or explanation in order to support the idea “my
sister is selfish”. Explanations are statements that assume the claim
to be true and provide reasons why the statement is true. Statement
4 asks the readers to simply accept the fact that “the sister is selfish.”
Arguments, meanwhile, are a series of statements that provide
reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is
truthful. Arguments are made with assumption that the truth of the
claim or opinion is still to be determined. You often encounter
arguments in a formal debate, where participants explain two sides of
a proposition, and judgment regarding the truthfulness of the
proposition is made after hearing the arguments of both sides.
D. What should we consider when looking at arguments or
opinions?

Arguments often take the form of statements that are either

claims of facts and are phrased in such a way that they seem
reasonable. However, a number of arguments may be based
on faulty reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called
fallacies. Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the
person making the claim is desperate to convince you to
accept his or her argument. The following are examples are
of fallacies.
 FALLACY CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
ad hominem Attacking the person presenting the argument instead “Of course he believes that the government is flawed, he is a rebel and a
of the argument itself. Communist!”

appeal to force Using the threat of force or an undesirable event to “If this peace agreement will not be signed by the government, then we will have no
advance an argument recourse but to go to war.”

appeal to emotion Using emotions such as pity or sympathy “All these charges are baseless; this is just plain harassment – can’t you see how this
is affecting my family?”

appeal to the popular The idea is presented as acceptable because a lot “Every boy your age already has a girlfriend, you should go find one!”
people accept it

appeal to tradition The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a “Marriage should be between a man and a woman. It has been so for a long time in
long time this country; it should remain so today and in the future.”

begging the question Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true; also “I have a right to free speech, therefore you cannot stop me from talking.”
known as “circular argument”

Cause-and-effect Assuming a “cause-and-effect” relationship between “Ever since you bought that sweater, everything has been going wrong in your life. You
unrelated events should get rid of it.”

fallacy of composition Assuming that that what is true of a part is true for “These cases of robbery in this district have convinced me that the city has become a
the whole den of thieves and criminals.

fallacy of division Assuming that what is true for the whole is true for “You come from a family of doctors and intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this
its parts course.
When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias or the
personal views of the person presenting it. Biases are not
necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or
influences which affect the views of people. Bias cannot be
avoided in any discussion or debate. What is important is
that the people engaging in the discussion are aware of
their personal biases and have an open but critical attitude
toward other views which conflict with their own.
 BIAS CHARACTERISTICS
correspondence bias or Tendency to judge a person’s
attribution effect personality by his or her actions,
without regard for external
factors or influences
confirmation bias Tendency to look for and readily
accept information which fits
one’s own beliefs or views and to
reject ideas or views that go
against it.
framing Focusing on a certain aspect of a
problem while ignoring other
aspects
EXAMPLE
“These soldiers who fought in the war are all blood
thirsty murderers!”
“How can I accept his view that there is no God? I am a
Christian.”
“Preliminary evidence has still not pointed out the
actual cause of the plane crash, but investigators are
currently focusing on the possibility of pilot error.”

hindsight The tendency to see past events “Magellan’s assault on Mactan Island was a foolhardy
as predictable, or to ascribe a venture, made by an overconfident, careless man who
pattern to historical events. underestimated the valor of the native Filipinos.”

conflict of interest A person or group is connected to
or has a vested interest in the
issue being discussed
cultural bias Analyzing an event or issue based
on one’s cultural standards
“As a daughter of the accused, I believe I have the right
to express my opinion on the issue of his alleged
corrupt practices.
“I do not agree with this Western practice of placing
aged parents in retirement homes. We Filipinos take
care of our family members.”