Chapter - 2 Data Comm

College of Engineering
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department
Data Communication and Computer Networks
(ECEG-4191)
Chapter II
Basic Internet-working Concepts
Outline
 Basic Internetworking Concepts

 Introduction
 Network Topology
 Network Model
 Protocol Architecture
 OSI Model
 TCP/IP standard
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Introduction ……………………………….
………………….…1
 Internetworking: connect different types of networks to
provide one large network which is accessible by all
other networks.
 Example: Internet, Intranet and extranet
 Internet: is a worldwide collection of interconnected

networks (internetworks or internet for short),
cooperating with each other to exchange information
using common standards.
Through
 telephone wires,
 fiber optic cables
 wireless transmissions and
 satellite links
Internet users can exchange information in a variety of
forms.
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 The Internet is a conglomerate of networks and is not
owned by any individual or group.
 Ensuring effective communication across this diverse
infrastructure requires
consistent application
commonly recognized technologies and standards
the cooperation of many network administration
agencies.
 There are organizations that have been developed for the
purpose of helping to maintain structure and
standardization of Internet protocols and processes.
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 These organizations include
 the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF),
 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN),
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
 the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), plus many
others.
Note:
 The term internet (with a lower case “i") is used to describe
multiple networks interconnected.
 When referring to the global system of interconnected computer
networks or the World Wide Web, the term Internet (with a
capital “I”) is used.
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There are two other terms which are similar to the

term Internet:
1. Intranet
2. Extranet
Intranet is a term often used to refer to a private
connection of LANs and WANs that belongs to an
organization.
And is designed to be accessible only by the
organization's members, employees, or others with
authorization.
Intranets are basically an internet which is usually only
accessible from within the organization.
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Organizations may publish web pages on an intranet

about
 internal events
 health and safety policies
 staff newsletters and
 staff phone directories.
For example, schools may have intranets that include

information on class schedules, online curriculum and
discussion forums.
Intranets usually help eliminate paperwork and speed
up workflows.
The intranet may be accessible to staff working outside
of the organization by using secure connections to the
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An organization may use an extranet to provide secure
and safe access to individuals who work for a different
organizations, but require company data.
 Examples of extranets include:
1. A company providing access to outside
suppliers/contractors.
2. A hospital providing a booking system to doctors so they
can make appointments for their patients.
3. A local office of education providing budget and
personnel information to the schools in its district.
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Internet model
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Internetworking Terms
 End System (ES)
 Device attached to one of the networks of an internet
 Supports end-user applications or services
 Intermediate System (IS)
 Device used to connect two networks
 Permits communication between end systems attached to different networks
Examples of intermediary network devices are:
 Network Access Devices (switches, and wireless access points)
 Internetworking Devices (routers)
 Security Devices (firewalls)
Network medium
A medium which connect networking devices
Provide a communication path between ES and IS , IS and IS
or vice verse.
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Network topology …………………..
………………………………1
Network topology: is the arrangement of the various elements (links,
nodes, etc.) of a computer network.
 Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network, and may be
described physically or logically.
 Physical topology refers to the placement of the network's various
components, including device location and cable installation.
 Logical topology shows how data flows within a network, regardless of
its physical design.
 Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates,
and/or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their
topologies may be identical.
 A good example is a local area network (LAN)
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Physical topology
The cabling layout used to link devices is the physical topology of the
network. This refers to Layout of
 Cabling
 Locations of nodes
 Interconnection between nodes
Physical topology of the network is determined by the capabilities of
 Network access devices
 Media
 The level of control or fault tolerance desired
 The cost associating with cabling or telecommunication circuit
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Logical topology
It is the way the signal acts on the network media, or the way that the
data passes through the network from one device to other without regard
to the physical interconnection of devices.
The logical topology is determined by the network protocols.
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 The common topologies for LANs are bus, tree, ring, star & Mesh.
Bus Topology
 All stations attach, through appropriate hardware interfacing known as
a tap, directly to a linear transmission medium, or bus.
 Full-duplex operation between the station and the tap allows data to be
transmitted onto the bus and received from the bus.
 A transmission from any station propagates the length of the medium
in both directions and can be received by all other stations.
 At each end of the bus there is a terminator, which absorbs any signal,
removing it from the bus.
 The bus is a special case of the tree, with only one trunk and no
branches.
 NB: The number of cables for bus topology is: one backbone cable
& n drop lines
Where n is the number of devices
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Bus topology
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Figure 2.2: Frame transmission on a bus LAN.

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Advantages Disadvantage
Cheap and easy to A break in the cable
implement will prevent all system
from accessing the
network
Required less cable Network disruption
when computers are
added
No need of specialized Difficult to
network equipment troubleshoot
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Tree topology
 The tree topology is a generalization of the bus topology.
 The transmission medium is a branching cable with no closed loops.
 The tree layout begins at a point known as the head end, where one or
more cables start, and each of these may have branches.

 The branches in turn may have additional branches to allow quite
complex layouts.
 Again, a transmission from any station propagates throughout the
medium and can be received by all other stations.
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Tree topology
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Two problems present in Bus and Tree arrangement:
First, because a transmission from any one station can be received by all other
stations, there needs to be some way of indicating for whom the transmission is
intended.
Second, a mechanism is needed to regulate transmission. To see the reason for
this, consider that if two stations on the bus attempt to transmit at the same time,
their signals will overlap and become distorted.
 Or, consider that one station decides to transmit continuously for a long period of
time.
 To solve these problems, stations transmit data in small blocks, known as frames.
 Each frame consists of a portion of the data that a station wishes to transmit, plus a
frame header that contains control information.
Each station on the bus is assigned a unique address, or identifier, and the
destination address for a frame is included in its header.
When a signal reaches the end of the medium, it is absorbed by the terminator.
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Ring Topology
 In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined
by point-to-point links in a closed loop.
 The repeater is a comparatively simple device, capable of receiving
data on one link and transmitting them, bit by bit, on the other link as
fast as they are received, with no buffering at the repeater.
 The data circulate around the ring in one direction (clockwise or
counter clockwise).
 As with the bus and tree, data are transmitted in frames. As a frame
circulates past all the other stations, the destination station recognizes
its address and copies the frame into a local buffer as it goes by.
 The frame continues to circulate until it returns to the source station,
where it is removed.
 Because multiple stations share the ring, medium access control is
needed to determine at what time each station may insert frames.
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Ring topology
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• In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can
disable the
entire network.
• This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable
of closing
off the break.
• Ring topology was dominant when IBM introduced its local-area
network
Token Ring.
• NB: The number of cables for ring topology is: n-1
Reading assignment
Token Ring working principle
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Star Topology
 All computers/devices connect to a central device called hub or switch.
 Each device requires a single cable point-to-point connection between
the device and hub.
 Most widely implemented
 Hub is the single point of failure
 NB: The number of cables for star topology is: n
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Star topology
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Mesh Topology
 Each computer connects to every other (Point-to-Point ).
 High level of redundancy.
 Rarely used.
 Wiring is very complicated
 Cabling cost is high
 Troubleshooting a failed cable is tricky
 Advantages:
 eliminating the traffic problems
 Robust:
Robust If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system.
 privacy or security.
security
 point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
easy
 NB: The number of cables for mesh topology is: n(n-1)/2
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Figure 2.6: Mesh topology
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Network Models ……………..………………................1
Client/Server Model
 Microcomputer users, or clients, share services of a centralized
computer called a server.
30 Figure 2.7: Client/Server Model

Network Models ……………...……………...................2
 A distinction exists between computers that make available
network resources (servers) and those computers that use the
resources (clients or workstations).
Pros:
 Very secure
 Centralized servers easy to manage
 Physically centralized
 Secure OS
 Better performance
 Centralized backups
 Reliability
 Simple job to do plus built in redundancy
Cons:
 Require professional administration
 More hardware intensive
31
Network Models by Capability………………................3
Peer-to-Peer Model
 Computers share equally with one another without having to

rely on a central server.
32 Figure 2.8: Client/Server Model

Network Models by Capability………………................4
 Computers on the network communicate with each others as
equals and each computer is responsible for making its own
resources available to other computers on the network.
Pros:
 Uses less expensive computer networks
 Easy to administer
 No NOS (network operating system) required
 More built-in redundancy
 Shared resources – some machine will have what you need
Cons:
 Individual user performance easily affected
 Not very secure
 Tragedy of the commons – no guarantee others will administer their resources
properly (almost guaranteed with over 10 machines)
 Hard to back up.
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Protocol Architecture………………..
……………………………9
In data communication we use two types of protocol

architecture model
OSI model
TCP/IP architecture
This two model are layer based model
OSI model is theoretical protocol model
TCP/IP is practical one today Internet uses this
protocol architecture model.
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Why a layered model?

1. Easier to understand and manage
communication process.
2. Speeds development, changes in one layer does
not affect how the other levels works.
3. Standardization across manufactures.
4. Allows different hardware and software to
work together.
5. Reduces complexity
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The OSI reference model
The model was developed by the International Organisation
for Standardisation (ISO) in 1984.
It is now considered the primary Architectural model for
inter-computer communications.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model
is a descriptive network scheme.
It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability
between various types of network technologies.
The OSI model describes how information or data makes
its way from application programmes through a network
medium (such as wire) to another application programme
located on another network.
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 The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven layers,
each specifying particular network functions.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software
or hardware on other computers.
 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and
physical) are concerned with the flow of data from end to
end through the network.
 The upper 3 layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session) are orientated more toward
services to the applications.
 Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves down the layers before network
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transit. 11/12/23
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OSI protocol model
The OSI Environment

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Physical layer
The main purpose of physical layer is deals with the
transmission of 0s and 1s over the physical media.
 Translation of bits into signals
It defines the following specification for physical interface
between devices
 Mechanical: Relates to the physical properties of the interface to a
transmission medium.
 Electrical: Relates to the representation of bits (e.g., in terms of voltage
levels) and the data transmission rate of bits.
 Functional: Specifies the functions performed by individual circuits of
the physical interface between a system and the transmission medium.
 Procedural: Specifies the sequence of events by which bit streams are
exchanged across the physical medium.
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Data Link layer

Purpose
Manages the flow of data over the physical media
Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a
reliable link
Error detection and control
Responsible for error-free transmission over the physical
media
Assures error-free data submission to the Network
Layer
Higher layers may assume error free transmission
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Network layer
Purpose
Addressing and routing the packets
Routing of data
Based on priority
Best path at the time of transmission
Congestion control
Higher layers do not need to know about underlying
technology
Not needed on direct links
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Transport layer
Purpose
Repackage proper and efficient delivery of packages
 Error free
 In sequence
 Without duplication
For sending data

Repackage the message to fit into packets
 Split long messages or Assemble small messages
On receiving data

 Perform the reverse and Send an acknowledgment to the sender
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Session
 Control of dialogues between applications
 Dialogue discipline: This can be two-way simultaneous (full duplex)
or two way alternate (half duplex).
 Grouping: The flow of data can be marked to define groups of data.
 Recovery: provide a check pointing mechanism. If a failure of some
sort occurs between checkpoints, the session entity can retransmit all
data since the last checkpoint.
 The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations
(called sessions) between applications.
Presentation
 Data formats and coding
 Data compression
 Encryption
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Application
It provides network services to the user’s applications.
It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services
to any other OSI layer, but rather, only to applications outside the
OSI model.
Means for applications to access OSI environment
Contains management functions and generally useful
mechanisms that support distributed applications.
General-purpose applications such as file transfer, electronic
mail, and terminal access to remote computers are considered to
reside at this layer.
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Protocol Architecture……………..
………………………………15
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 Each layer contains a Protocol

Data Unit (PDU)
 PDU’s are used for peer-to-
peer contact between
corresponding layers.
 Data is handled by the top three
layers, then Segmented by the
Transport layer.
 The Network layer places it
into packets and the Data Link
frames the packets for
transmission.
 Physical layer converts it to
bits and sends it out over the
media.
 The receiving computer
reverses the process using the
information contained in the
PDU.
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TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

 TCP/IP is the de facto standard (a standard (formal or informal)
that has achieved a dominant and accepted position)
 Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
(DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET)
 it is used by the global Internet
 No official model but a working one.
 Application layer
 Host to host or transport layer
 Internet layer
 Network access layer
 Physical layer
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Physical Layer Network Access Layer

 Physical interface between data  Exchange of data between
transmission device (e.g. end system and network
computer) and transmission  Destination address
medium or network provision
 Described characteristics of  Invoking services like
transmission medium priority
 Signal levels
 Data rates
 etc.
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Internet Layer
 Systems may be attached to different networks
 Routing functions across multiple networks
 Implemented in end systems and routers
Transport (TCP) Layer
 Provides end-to-end, data-transfer service.
 Reliable delivery of data
 Ordering of delivery
Application Layer
 Provides communication between processes or applications on separate
hosts.
 e.g. http, SMTP
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TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
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Operation of TCP and IP

 Figure on next siled indicates how the TCP/IP protocols are configured
for communications.
 Simple operation:
 Suppose that a process, associated with port 1 at host A, wishes to send a
message to another process, associated with port 2 at host B.
 The process at A hands the message down to TCP with instructions to send it
to host B, port 2.
 TCP hands the message down to IP with instructions to send it to host B.
 Note that IP need not be told the identity of the destination port.
 it needs to know is that the data are intended for host B. Next, IP hands the
message down to the' network access layer (e.g., Ethernet logic) with
instructions to send it to router J (the first hop on the way to B).
 To control this operation, control information as well as user data must be
transmitted, as suggested in Figure on siled 64
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55 Figure: Addressing concepts 11/12/23

……………………………21
Network
Network
access layer
access header
frame
Figure : Protocol data units in the TCP/IP architecture
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 Let us say that the sending process generates a block of data and passes this to
TCP.
 TCP may break this block into smaller pieces to make it more manageable.
 To each of these pieces, TCP appends control information known as the TCP
header, thereby forming a TCP segment.
 The control information is to be used by the peer TCP protocol entity at host B.
Examples of items that are included in this header are:
 Destination port: When the TCP entity at B receives the segment, it must know to
whom the data are to be delivered.
 Sequence number: TCP numbers the segments that it sends to a particular
destination port sequentially, so that if they arrive out of order, the TCP entity at B
can reorder them.
 Checksum: The sending TCP includes a code that is a function of the contents of
the remainder of the segment. The receiving TCP performs the same calculation
and compares the result with the incoming code. A discrepancy results if there has
been some error in transmission.
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 Next, TCP hands each segment over to IP, with instructions to transmit
it to B.
 IP appends a header of control information to each segment to form an
IP datagram (packet).
 An example of an item stored in the IP header is the destination host
address (in this example, B).
 Finally, The network access layer appends its own header, creating a
frame.
 The frame is transmitted across the sub-network to router J.
 The frame header contains:
 Destination MAC address
 Error correction headers
 Facilities requests: The network access protocol might request the use of
certain sub-network facilities, such as priority.
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The Applications
 Figure shows the position of some of the key protocols commonly
implemented as part of the TCP/IP protocol suite.

 The simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP): provides a basic electronic
mail facility.
 The file transfer protocol (FTP): is used to send files from one system to
another under user command.

 TELNET: provides a remote log-on capability, which enables a user at a
terminal or personal computer to log on to a remote computer and function

as if directly connected to that computer.
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Figure : Some protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite

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An example of using the protocol suite in network
communications is the interaction between a web
server and a web client.
This interaction uses a number of protocols and
standards in the process of exchanging information
between them.
The different protocols work together to ensure that
the messages are received and understood by both
parties. Examples of these protocols are:
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Application Protocol
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol that
governs the way a web server and a web client interact.
HTTP defines the content and formatting of the requests
and responses that are exchanged between the client and
server.
Both the client and the web server software implement
HTTP as part of the application.
HTTP relies on other protocols to govern how the
messages are transported between the client and server.
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Transport Protocol
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport
protocol that manages the individual conversations between
web servers and web clients.
TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller pieces,
called segments.
These segments are sent between the web server and
client processes running at the destination host.
TCP is also responsible for controlling the size and rate at
which messages are exchanged between the server and the
client.
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Internet Protocol
IP is responsible for
taking the formatted segments from TCP,
encapsulating them into packets,
assigning them the appropriate addresses, and
delivering them across the best path to the
destination host.
.
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Network Access Protocols
Network access protocols describe two primary
functions,
 communication over a data link and
 the physical transmission of data on the network media.
Data-link management protocols take the packets from
IP and format them to be transmitted over the media.
The standards and protocols for the physical media
govern how the signals are sent and how they are
interpreted by the receiving clients. An example of a
network access protocol is Ethernet.
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College of Engineering

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Data Communication and Computer Networks

 Basic Internetworking Concepts

 Internet: is a worldwide collection of interconnected

There are two other terms which are similar to the

Organizations may publish web pages on an intranet

For example, schools may have intranets that include

Figure 2.2: Frame transmission on a bus LAN.

 The transmission medium is a branching cable with no closed loops.

more cables start, and each of these may have branches.

medium and can be received by all other stations.

Figure 2.6: Mesh topology

30 Figure 2.7: Client/Server Model

 Computers share equally with one another without having to

32 Figure 2.8: Client/Server Model

In data communication we use two types of protocol

Why a layered model?

OSI protocol model

The OSI Environment

Data Link layer

For sending data

On receiving data

 Each layer contains a Protocol

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

Physical Layer Network Access Layer

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

Operation of TCP and IP

55 Figure: Addressing concepts 11/12/23

implemented as part of the TCP/IP protocol suite.

another under user command.

terminal or personal computer to log on to a remote computer and function

Figure : Some protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite

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