Design and Analysis of

Algorithms
Dr. A Vadivel
GITAM – SOT-BLR
Analysis of Algorithms

Input Algorithm Output

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for

solving a problem in a finite amount of time.
Running Time
Most algorithms transform best case

input objects into output average case

worst case
objects. 120

The running time of an 100

algorithm typically grows

Running Time
80
with the input size.
60
Average case time is often
difficult to determine. 40

We focus on the worst case 20

running time. 0
1000 2000 3000 4000
 Easier to analyze Input Size
 Crucial to applications such as
games, finance and robotics
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Experimental Studies
Write a program 9000

implementing the 8000

algorithm 7000

Run the program with 6000

Time (ms)
inputs of varying size and 5000
composition 4000
Use a method like 3000
System.currentTimeMillis() to 2000
get an accurate measure
1000
of the actual running time
0
Plot the results 0 50 100
Input Size

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Limitations of Experiments
It is necessary to implement the algorithm,
which is usually difficult
In order to compare two algorithms, the
same hardware and software environments
must be used

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A quick look at Space Complexity
A quick look at Space Complexity

Space complexity is typically a

secondary concern to time complexity
given the amount of space in today’s
computers, unless of course its size
requirements simply become too large.
 Theoretical Analysis
Uses a high-level description of the
algorithm instead of an implementation
Characterizes running time as a function
of the input size, n.
Takes into account all possible inputs
Allows us to evaluate the speed of an
algorithm independent of the
hardware/software environment
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 Pseudocode
High-level description Example: find max
of an algorithm element of an array
More structured than Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
English prose Input array A of n integers
Less detailed than a Output maximum element of A
program
Preferred notation for currentMax  A[0]
describing algorithms for i  1 to n  1 do
Hides program design if A[i]  currentMax then
issues currentMax  A[i]
return currentMax

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The Random Access Machine
(RAM) Model
A CPU

An potentially unbounded
bank of memory cells, 12
each of which can hold an 0
arbitrary number or
character
Memory cells are numbered and accessing
any cell in memory takes unit time.
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11
Primitive Operations
Basic computations
Examples:
performed by an algorithm  Evaluating an
Identifiable in pseudocode expression
Largely independent from the  Assigning a value
to a variable
programming language  Indexing into an
Exact definition not important array
(we will see why later)  Calling a method
Returning from a
Assumed to take a constant


method
amount of time in the RAM
model

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 Counting Primitive
Operations
By inspecting the pseudocode, we can determine the
maximum number of primitive operations executed by an
algorithm, as a function of the input size

Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
currentMax  A[0] 2
for i  1 to n  1 do 2n
if A[i]  currentMax then 2(n  1)
currentMax  A[i] 2(n  1)
{ increment counter i } 2(n  1)
return currentMax 1
Total 7n  1

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Estimating Running Time
Algorithm arrayMax executes 7n  1 primitive
operations in the worst case. Define:
a = Time taken by the fastest primitive operation
b = Time taken by the slowest primitive operation
Let T(n) be worst-case time of arrayMax. Then
a (7n  1)  T(n)  b(7n  1)
Hence, the running time T(n) is bounded by two
linear functions

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 Growth Rates
1E+30
Growth rates of 1E+28 Cubic
functions: 1E+26
1E+24 Quadratic
 Linear  n 1E+22
Linear
1E+20
 Quadratic  n2 1E+18
Cubic  n3
T (n )
 1E+16
1E+14
1E+12
In a log-log chart, 1E+10
1E+8
the slope of the line 1E+6
1E+4
corresponds to the 1E+2
growth rate of the 1E+0
1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10
function n

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Asymptotic notation

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Asymptotic notation

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Asymptotic notation

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Example for asymptotic
notation -

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Example for asymptotic
notation -

IcfaiTech 20
Example for asymptotic
notation -

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 Big-Oh Notation
10,000
Given functions f(n) and 3n
g(n), we say that f(n) is 2n+10
1,000
O(g(n)) if there are
n
positive constants
c and n0 such that 100

f(n)  cg(n) for n  n0

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Example: 2n  10 is O(n)
 2n  10  cn 1
 (c  2) n 10 1 10 100 1,000
 n 10(c  2) n
 Pick c 3 and n0 10

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Big-Oh Example
1,000,000
n^2
Example: the function 100n
100,000
n2 is not O(n) 10n
 n2  cn 10,000 n
 nc
 The above inequality 1,000
cannot be satisfied
since c must be a 100
constant
10

1
1 10 100 1,000
n

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More Big-Oh Examples
7n-2
7n-2 is O(n)
need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 7n-2  c•n for n  n0
this is true for c = 7 and n0 = 1
 3n3 + 20n2 + 5
3n3 + 20n2 + 5 is O(n3)
need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 3n3 + 20n2 + 5  c•n3 for n  n0
this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 21
 3 log n + log log n

3 log n + log log n is O(log n)

need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 3 log n + log log n  c•log n for n  n0
this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 2
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Big-Oh and Growth Rate
The big-Oh notation gives an upper bound on the
growth rate of a function
The statement “f(n) is O(g(n))” means that the growth
rate of f(n) is no more than the growth rate of g(n)
We can use the big-Oh notation to rank functions
according to their growth rate

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Big-Oh Rules
If is f(n) a polynomial of degree d, then f(n) is
O(nd), i.e.,
1. Drop lower-order terms
2. Drop constant factors
Use the smallest possible class of functions
 Say “2n is O(n)” instead of “2n is O(n2)”
Use the simplest expression of the class
 Say “3n  5 is O(n)” instead of “3n  5 is O(3n)”

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Asymptotic Algorithm Analysis
The asymptotic analysis of an algorithm determines
the running time in big-Oh notation
To perform the asymptotic analysis
 We find the worst-case number of primitive operations
executed as a function of the input size
 We express this function with big-Oh notation
Example:
 We determine that algorithm arrayMax executes at most
7n  1 primitive operations
 We say that algorithm arrayMax “runs in O(n) time”
Since constant factors and lower-order terms are
eventually dropped anyhow, we can disregard them
when counting primitive operations
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Computing Prefix Averages
We further illustrate 35
asymptotic analysis with X
two algorithms for prefix 30 A
averages 25
The i-th prefix average of 20
an array X is average of the
first (i  1) elements of X: 15
A[i] X[0]  X[1]  …  X[i])/(i+1) 10
5
Computing the array A of
0
prefix averages of another
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
array X has applications to
financial analysis
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Prefix Averages (Quadratic)
The following algorithm computes prefix averages in
quadratic time by applying the definition
Algorithm prefixAverages1(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations
A  new array of n integers n
for i  0 to n  1 do n
s  X[0] n
for j  1 to i do 1 2 … (n  1)
s  s  X[j] 1 2 … (n  1)
A[i]  s  (i  1) n
return A 1
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Arithmetic Progression
7
The running time of
6
prefixAverages1 is
O(1 2 …n) 5
The sum of the first n 4
integers is n(n 1) 2 3
 There is a simple visual
proof of this fact 2
Thus, algorithm 1
prefixAverages1 runs in 0
O(n2) time
1 2 3 4 5 6

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Prefix Averages (Linear)
The following algorithm computes prefix averages in
linear time by keeping a running sum
Algorithm prefixAverages2(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations
A  new array of n integers n
s0 1
for i  0 to n  1 do n
s  s  X[i] n
A[i]  s  (i  1) n
return A 1
Algorithm prefixAverages2 runs in O(n) time
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Math you need to Review
Logarithms and Exponents
properties of logarithms:
logb(xy) = logbx + logby
logb (x/y) = logbx - logby
logbxa = alogbx
logba = logxa/logxb
properties of exponentials:
a(b+c) = aba c
abc = (ab)c
ab /ac = a(b-c)
b = a logab
bc = a c*logab

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Intuition for Asymptotic
Notation
Big-Oh
 f(n) is O(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically less than or equal to g(n)

big-Omega
 f(n) is (g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically greater than or equal to g(n)

big-Theta
 f(n) is (g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically equal to g(n)

little-oh
 f(n) is o(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically strictly less than g(n)

little-omega
 f(n) is (g(n)) if is asymptotically strictly greater than g(n)

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