2023

Number Theory Part 2

IF2303 – Discrete Structure
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Overview
Part 7: Number Theory Part 2. This chapter provides an in-depth exploration of various
fundamental concepts in number theory. It delves into modular exponentiation, a crucial
technique for efficiently computing large powers in modular arithmetic. The chapter also
focuses on the study of primes, discussing their unique characteristics and importance in
encryption algorithms and other areas. Furthermore, it explores the concepts of greatest
common divisors and least common multiples.
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Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to :
• Employ modular exponentiation as a crucial technique for efficiently computing large powers
in modular arithmetic.
• Appreciate the significance of prime numbers in encryption algorithms and other relevant
areas.
• Apply knowledge of greatest common divisors and least common multiples to solve related
mathematical problems.
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• Modular Exponentiation
Content
• Primes
• Greatest Common Divisors
• Least Common Multiples
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Modular Exponentiation
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Modular Exponentiation
• In cryptography it is important to be able to find b n mod m efficiently
without using an excessive amount of memory, where b, n, and m are
large integers.
• It is impractical to first compute bn and then find its remainder when
divided by m, because bn can be a huge number and we will need a huge
amount of computer memory to store such numbers.
• Instead, we can avoid time and memory problems by using an algorithm
that employs the binary expansion of the exponent n.
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Modular Exponentiation Algorithm

Example :
Find 3644 mod 645.
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Modular Exponentiation Algorithm

Solution :
The Algorithm initially sets x = 1 and power = 3 mod 645 = 3. In the
j
computation of 3 mod 645, this algorithm determines 3 mod 645 for j =
644 2

1, 2, … , 9 by successively squaring and reducing modulo 645. If a j = 1 (where

aj is the bit in the jth position in the binary expansion of 644, which is
j
(1010000100)2), it multiplies the current value of x by 3 mod 645 and
2

reduces the result modulo 645.

Here are the steps used :

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Modular Exponentiation Algorithm

This shows that following the steps of the Algorithm produces the result 3 644 mod 645 = 36.
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Primes
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Primes
• Every integer greater than 1 is divisible by at least two integers, because a
positive integer is divisible by 1 and by itself. Positive integers that have
exactly two different positive integer factors are called primes.
• A positive integer that is greater than 1 and is not prime is called
composite.
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Primes
Example :
The integer 7 is prime because its only positive factors are 1 and 7, whereas
the integer 9 is composite because it is divisible by 3.
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Greatest Common Divisors

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Greatest Common Divisors

• The largest integer that divides both of two integers is called the greatest
common divisor of these integers.
• Let a and b be integers, not both zero. The largest integer d such that d ∣
a and d ∣ b is called the greatest common divisor of a and b. The greatest
common divisor of a and b is denoted by gcd(a, b).
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Greatest Common Divisors

Example :
What is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 36?

Solution :
The positive common divisors of 24 and 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. Hence,
gcd(24, 36) = 12
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The Euclidean Algorithm

• Computing the greatest common divisor of two integers directly from the
prime factorizations of these integers is inefficient.
• The reason is that it is time-consuming to find prime factoriza- Links tions.
• We will give a more efficient method of finding the greatest common
divisor, called the Euclidean algorithm.
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The Euclidean Algorithm

1. Start with two integers A and B for which you want to find the GCD.
2. Perform the replacement steps repeatedly until B becomes zero :
As long as B is not equal to 0, follow these steps:
• Calculate the remainder of dividing A by B (A mod B).
• Replace A with B.
• Replace B with the remainder of the division (A mod B).
3. When B becomes zero, A is the GCD of A and B.
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The Euclidean Algorithm

Example :
Find the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of two numbers 91 and 287.

Solution :
A = 287, B = 91
287 mod 91 = 14; A = 91, B = 14
91 mod 14 = 7; A = 14, B = 7
14 mod 7 = 0; A = 7, B = 0

Since B has become zero, the GCD of 91 and 287 is 7.

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Least Common Multiples

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Least Common Multiples

• Prime factorizations can also be used to find the least common multiple
of two integers.
• The least common multiple of the positive integers a and b is the smallest
positive integer that is divisible by both a and b. The least common
multiple of a and b is denoted by lcm(a, b).
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Least Common Multiples

Example :
What is the least common multiple of 233572 and 2433?

Solution :
We have
lcm(233572, 2433) = 2max(3, 4)3max(5, 3)7max(2, 0) = 243572
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Unit Summary
You should now be able to :
• Employ modular exponentiation as a crucial technique for efficiently computing large powers
in modular arithmetic.
• Appreciate the significance of prime numbers in encryption algorithms and other relevant
areas.
• Apply knowledge of greatest common divisors and least common multiples to solve related
mathematical problems.
 Question & Answer

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