CROSS-CULTURAL Chapter 2

THEORIES
CONTENTS
1. Hofstede’s national cultural dimensions
2. Kluckhohn – Strodthbeck
3. Halls and Halls: High and Low context culture
4. Trompennars: 7d cultural dimension model
5. Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE
HOFSTEDE’S NATIONAL
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
Geert Hofstede was one of the first researchers to analyze
the influence of national culture on management
practices.
Empirical study at large multinational company (IBM):
 66 national subsidiaries
 116,000 questionnaires
 60 out of 150 questions concerned values and opinions.
FOUR ASPECTS OF NATIONAL CULTURE

Hofstede’s original cultural dimensions:

Four aspects of national culture that affect our thinking about
organisations:
1. Power distance (High power distance)
2. Uncertainty avoidance (Low uncertainty avoidance)
3. Individualism/Collectivism (Individualism)
4. Masculinity/Femininity (Masculinity)
5. Short-term orientation versus long-term orientation (Long-term)
6. Indulgence versus restraint (
1. LOW/HIGH POWER DISTANCE
DIMENSION
2. COLLECTIVIST/INDIVIDUALIST
DIMENSION
3. MASCULINE/FEMININE DIMENSION
4. LOW/HIGH UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
DIMENSION
TWO FURTHER
DIMENSIONS
5. Short-term orientation versus long-term
orientation
 This dimension was NOT found in the data used to
determine the original dimensions (Hofstede, 2001).
 This dimension emerges from the Chinese Values
Survey (1985) which contained a Confucian
dynamism scale.
5. SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION VERSUS
LONG-TERM ORIENTATION
6. INDULGENCE VERSUS
RESTRAINT

• This sixth dimension was added in 2010 as result of

analysis done by Michael Minkov (World Values
Survey).

• Reflects the extent to which a society allows basic

and natural desires to be gratified in its pursuit of
happiness
KLUCKHOHN -
STRODTHBECK
This theory is based on the ‘Patterns of behavior and
thinking’ in different cultures. The researchers
distinguish and compare cultures based on the following
dimensions:
1. What is the nature of people – Good, evil or mixed
2. What is a person’s relationship to nature – Dominant, Harmony,
subjugation.
3. What is a person’s relationship to – Hierarchical, collectivist or
others? Individualistic.
4. What is the modality of human activity? – Doing, being or
containing
5. What is the temporal focus of human activity? Future, present or
past.
6. What is the conception of Space? Private, public or mixed.
HALLS AND HALLS
Halls and Halls in 1987 provided another basis for cross cultural
classification. They divided the world into two cultures:
A) Low context Culture
B) High context Culture
Factor High-context culture Low-context culture

Overtness of messages Many covert and implicit messages, Many overt and explicit messages that
with use of metaphor and reading are simple and clear.
between the lines.
Locus of control and Inner locus of control and personal Outer locus of control and blame of
attribution for failure acceptance for failure others for failure
Use of non-verbal Much nonverbal communication More focus on verbal communication
communication than body language

Expression of reaction Reserved, inward reactions Visible, external, outward reaction

Cohesion and Strong diistinction between Flexible and open grouping patterns,
separation of groups ingroup and outgroup. Strong changing as needed
sense of family.
People bonds Strong people bonds with affiliation Fragile bonds between people with
to family and community little sense of loyalty.
Level of commitment High commitment to long-term Low commitment to relationship. Task
to relationships relationships. more important than relationships.
Relationship more important than
task.
Flexibility of time Time is open and flexible. Time is highly organized.
Process is more important than Product is more important than process
product
TROMPENNARS: 7D
CULTURAL DIMENSION
MODEL
Research produced these cultural dimensions that are
based on relationship orientations and attitudes toward
both time and the environment
 Universalism vs. particularism (rules)
 Individualism vs. collectivism
 Neutral vs. affective (emotion)
 Specific vs. diffused involvement
 Achievement vs. ascription (status)
 Time (Past, present and future orientation)
 Internal vs. external control (Environment)
UNIVERSALISM VS.
PARTICULARISM
Universalism - belief that ideas
and practices can be applied
everywhere in the world
without modification
Focus on formal rules and rely on
business contacts
INDIVIDUALISM VS. COLLECTIVISM
Individualism - people regard
themselves as individuals
Rely on individuals to make
decisions
Particularism - belief that
circumstances dictate how
ideas and practices should be
applied and something cannot
be done the same everywhere
Focus on relationships, working
things out to suit the parties
Collectivism- people
regard themselves as part of a
group
Seek consultation and mutual
consent before making decisions
 NEUTRAL VS. EMOTIONAL
Neutral - culture in which
emotions are held in check
People try not to show their feelings
SPECIFIC VS. DIFFUSE
Specific - culture in which
individuals have a large public
space they readily share with others
and a small private space they guard
closely and share with only close
friends and associates
People often are open and extroverted
Work and private life are separate
Emotional - culture in which
emotions are expressed openly
and naturally
People smile, talk loudly, greet
each other with enthusiasm
Diffuse - culture in which both
public and private space are similar
in size and individuals guard their
public space carefully, because entry
into public space affords entry into
private space as well
People often appear indirect and
introverted, and work and private life
often are closely linked
ACHIEVEMENT VS. ASCRIPTION
Achievement - culture in which
people are accorded status
based on how well they perform
their functions
Ascription - culture in which
status is attributed based on
who or what a person is
For example, status may be
accorded on the basis of age,
gender, or social connections
TIME
Sequential approach to time -
people do one thing at a time, keep
appointments strictly, follow plans
to the letter
ENVIRONMENT
Inner-directed
People believe in controlling
environmental outcomes
Synchronous approach -
people do more than one thing at a
time, appointments
are approximate
Outer-directed
People believe in allowing things to
take their natural course
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
ACCORDING TO GLOBE
GLOBE Research programme (House et al., 2004):
• Examines practices and values at industrial, organisational
and societal level.
• Has developed dimensions of societal cultural variation in
addition to those of Hofstede:
– Humane orientation
– Assertiveness
 Gender egalitarianism See
Table
– Future orientation
– Performance orientation
 CULTURE CONSTRUCT
DEFINITIONS AND
SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS
(1 OF 2)

Source: House et al., 2004: 30 (Table 3.1).

 Culture construct definitions and
sample questionnaire items (2 of 2)

Source: House et al., 2004: 30 (Table 3.1).