3rd WIS5 Weldability N.PPT 1. Home

TECHNOLOGY
Welding Inspection
Weldability
Course Reference WIS 5
Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof
Weldability of Steel
Definition
TECHNOLOGY
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded

with mechanical soundness by most of the common
welding processes, and the resulting welded joint retain
the properties for which it has been designed.
is a function of many inter-related factor but these may be
summary as:
-composition of parent material
-Process and technique
-Access

The weldability of steel is manly dependant on carbon &
TECHNOLOGY
other alloying elements contents.

-poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of
cracking.
-A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:
An acceptable joint can only be made using very narrow
range of welding conditions.
great precautions to avoid cracking are essntial

Elements may be added to steel to produce the properties
TECHNOLOGY
required to make it useful for an application.

Most elements can affect on the properties of steels.
Other factor which affect material properties are:
-the temperature reached before and during welding
-the cooling rate after welding and or PWHT.

Steel alloying elements
Iron (Fe:)
TECHNOLOGY
Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile

low stregth
Carbon (C)
Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element
with major influence HAZ hardness. Decreases
weldability , typical < 0.25%.
Manganese (Mn)
Secondary only to carbon for strength toughness and
ductility, secondary deoxidiser and also reacts with sulphur
to form managaese sulphides.

Classification of Steel
Steels are classified into groups as follows
TECHNOLOGY
Plain Carbon Steels

1. Low Carbon Steel 0.01 – 0.3% Carbon
2. Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6% Carbon
3. High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4% Carbon

Plain carbon steels contain only iron & carbon as main alloying
elements, traces of Mn, Si, Al, S & P may also be present

TECHNOLOGY Classification of Steel
An Alloy steel is one that contains more than
Iron & Carbon as a main alloying elements
Alloy steels are divided into 2 groups
1. Low Alloy Steels < 7% extra alloying elements
2. High Alloy Steels > 7% extra alloying elements

Solid solution
TECHNOLOGY
(a) substitutional (b) interstitial

Steel Weld Metallurgy
Carbon: Major element in steels, influences
TECHNOLOGY
strength,toughness and ductility
Manganese: Secondary only to carbon for strength
toughness and ductility, secondary deoxidiser and also acts
as a desulphuriser.
Silicon: Primary deoxidiser
Molybdenum: Effects hardenability, and has high creep
strength at high temperatures. Steels containing
molybdenum are less susceptible to temper brittleness than
other alloy steels.
Chromium: Widely used in stainless steels for corrosion
resistance, increases hardness and strength but reduces
ductility.
Nickel: Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion
from acids, increases strength and toughness
Steel Weld Metallurgy
 Aluminium:Deoxidiser,grain refinement
TECHNOLOGY
 Sulphur: Machineability
 Tungsten: High temperature strength
 Titanium: Elimination of carbide precipitation
 Vanadium: Fine grain – Toughness
 Copper: Corrosion resistance and strength

TECHNOLOGY
Increased strength: C, Si, Cu, Mn, Mo (also Nb and V;
their exact effect depends on other factors also
such as the rolling temperature and time, amount
of carbon and nitrogen present, etc.)
Hardening capacity: C, Mn, Mo, Cr, Ni, Cu

Toughness: Ni, grain refinement (achieved via the presence of Nb, V, Al, Ti)
Elevated Temperature Properties: Cr, Mo, V
Atmospheric corrosion Resistance: Cu, Ni

TECHNOLOGY Steel Weld Metallurgy
The grain structure of steel will influence its weldability,

mechanical properties and in-service performance. The grain
structure present in a material is influenced by:
The type and number of elements present in the

material
The temperature reached during welding and or
PWHT.
The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT

Cooling Rate
The cooling rate of the weld zone depends on the following factors:
TECHNOLOGY
•Weld heat : Also call arc energy, is the amount of electrical

energy that is supplied to the welding arc
over a given weld length ( an inch or mm)
•Thickness of material
•Preheating

TECHNOLOGY Heat Affected Zone
The parent material undergoes microstructure changes

due to the influence of the welding process. This area,
which lies between the fusion boundary and the unaffected
parent material, is called the heat affected zone (h.a.z.).



Heat Affected Zone
The extent of changes will be dependent upon the
TECHNOLOGY
following :-
 Material composition
 Cooling rate, fast cooling higher hardness
 Arc energy, high arc energy wider HAZ
 The HAZ can not be eliminated in a fusion weld

TECHNOLOGY Arc energy
Amps = 200 Volts = 32
Travel speed = 240 mm/min
Arc energy= Amps x volts

Travel speed mm/sec X 1000
Heat input = 200 X 32 X 60

240 X 1000
Heat input = 1.6 kJ/mm

TECHNOLOGY Heat Input
High heat input - slow cooling
 Low toughness
 Reduction in strength
Low heat input - fast cooling
 Increased hardness
 Hydrogen entrapment
 Lack of fusion

Carbon Equivalent
 The CE of steel primarily relates to its hardenability.
TECHNOLOGY
 Higher the CE, lower the weldability

 Higher the CE, higher the susceptibility to brittleness
 The CE of a given material depends on its alloying
elements
 The CE is calculated using the following formula
CE = C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni
6 5 15
Hardenability:The relative ability of a ferrous alloy to form martensite
when quenched from high temperatures.

Weldability
 Weldability can be defined as the ability of a material to
TECHNOLOGY
be welded by most of the common welding processes,

and retain the properties for which it has been designed.
 A steel which can be welded without any real dangerous
consequences is said to possess Good Weldability.
 A steel which can not be welded without any dangerous
consequences occurring is said to possess Poor
Weldability. Poor weldability normally generally results in
the occurrence of some sort of cracking problem

TECHNOLOGY Weldability
Weldability is a function of many inter-related

factors but these may be summarised as:
Composition of parent material
 Joint design and size
 Process and technique
 Access

Weldability
It is very difficult to asses weldability in absolute terms
TECHNOLOGY
therefore it is normally assessed in relative terms

Weldability
There are many factors which affect weldabilty e.g. material type, welding
TECHNOLOGY
parameters amps, volts travel speed, heat input.

Weldability
Other factors affecting weldabilty are welding position and
TECHNOLOGY
welding techniques.

Weldability
Basically speaking weldabilty is the ease with which a material or
TECHNOLOGY
materials can be welded to give an acceptable joint

TECHNOLOGY
Cracks

TECHNOLOGY Process Cracks
Hydrogen induced cold cracking

(HICC)
Solidification cracking (Hot Tearing)
Lamellar tearing
Weld Decay

TECHNOLOGY Cracks
When considering any type of crack mechanism,

three elements must be present for it’s
occurrence:
 Stress: stress is always present in weldments,
through local expansion and contraction.
 Restraint: may be a local restriction, or through the

plates being welded.
 Susceptible microstructure: the structure is often

made susceptible to cracking through welding, e.g high
hardness

TECHNOLOGY
Hydrogen
Cracks

Hydrogen Cracking
Hydrogen causes general embrittlment and in welds may
TECHNOLOGY
lead directly to cracking,

TECHNOLOGY
A combination of four factors is necessary to cause HAZ hydrogen cracking

Hydrogen Cracking
Characteristics
TECHNOLOGY
 Also known as hydrogen induced cold cracking ,

delay cracking , underbead cracking and chevron.
 Hydrogen is the major influence to this type of
cracking.
 Source of hydrogen may be from moisture or
hydrocarbon such as grease , paint on the parent
material, damp welding fluxes or from condensation
of parent material
 Hydrogen is absorbed by the weld pool from the arc
atmosphere.

• During cooling, much of this hydrogen escapes
TECHNOLOGY
from the solidified bead by the diffusion but some

also diffuses into the HAZ of the parent metal.
• Type of cracking is intergranular along grain
boundaries or transganular
• Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and
hydrogen and low temperature is reached.
• Most likely in HAZ for Carbon Manganese steel
and in weld metal for HSLA steel.

Hydrogen Cracking
Micro Alloyed Steel Carbon Manganese Steel
TECHNOLOGY
Hydrogen induced Hydrogen induced

weld metal HAZ cracking
cracking
TECHNOLOGY Hydrogen Cracking
Factors responsible:
Hydrogen cracking occurs when the conditions outlined in 1 – 4
occur simultaneously :
1.Susceptible grain structure – hardness value > 350 V.P.N
That part of HAZ which experiences a high enough temperature for
the parent steel to transform rapidly from ferrite to austenite and
back again,produces microstructures which are usually harder and
more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.
2.Hydrogen level - > 15 ml/100g
This is inevitably present, derived from moisture in the fluxes used

in welding and from other sources.

TECHNOLOGY Hydrogen Cracking
3.Temperature < 200oC for any steel and < 150oC for
structural steel.
The greatest risk of cracking occurs when temperatures
near ambient are reached and cracking may thus take
place several hours after welding has been completed
( normally after 72 hours )
4.Stress > 50% yield strength of parent metal
These arise inevitably from thermal contractions during

cooling and may be supplemented by other stresses
developed as a result of rigidity in the parts to be joined.

Hydrogen Cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
TECHNOLOGY
 Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations, and slows down
the cooling rate
 Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from contamination
 The use of a low hydrogen welding process such as TIG or MIG/MAG
 The use of Nickel and Austenitic filler metal
 Ensure all welding is carried out under controlled environmental
conditions
 Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
 The use of a PWHT with maintaining the pre- heat temperature
 Avoid poor weld profiles
 Use low hydrogen electrodes and baked as per manufacturer instructions

TECHNOLOGY
Solidification
Cracks

Solidification Cracking
Characteristics
TECHNOLOGY
 Also known as hot cracking or center line cracking or crater

cracking and liquation cracking
Solidificationcracking is intergranular type of cracking that
is along the grain boundaries of the weld metal.
Itoccurs during the terminal stages of solidification,when the
stresses developed across the adjacent grains exceed the
strength of the almost completely solidified weld metal.
Impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous and carbon
pick - up from parent metal increase the risk of cracking
High joint restraint which produce high residual stress will

increase the susceptibility to this type of cracking.
• Occurs during weld solidification process from
TECHNOLOGY
liquidus to solidus and at the last area to solidified.

• Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility at
elevated temperature ) whereby produce hot
shortness to the weld metal
• FeS form films at the grain boundaries whereby
reduce the strength of the weld metal.
• Addition of manganese will form MnS and forms
globules instead of films( FeS)
• Occur longitudinally down center of weld
• Welding process that most susceptible to this type
of cracking are SAW and MIG/MAG with spray
transfer due to high dilution rate.

TECHNOLOGY Solidification Cracking
Intergranular liquid
film along the grain
boundary
TECHNOLOGY Solidification Cracking
Weld Centerline
Factors responsible :
TECHNOLOGY
Metallurgical factors
a) Freezing temperature range –higher freezing range more
susceptible to solidification cracking due to presence of FeS
b) Primary solidification Phase – Less than 5% delta ferrite
c) Surface tension – concave more susceptible than convex
weld shape
d) Grain structure of fusion zone – Coarse columnar grain more
susceptible especially with high energy welding process.
Mechanical factors
a) Contraction stresses – Thicker material more susceptible.
b) Degree of restraint – poor fit - up
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
TECHNOLOGY
 Use low dilution welding process

The use of high manganese and low carbon content fillers
Maintain a low carbon content
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint
during welding
The use of high quality parent materials, low levelsof impurities
Use proper joint design, use Single J instead of single V
Clean joint preparations, free from oil, paints and any other
sulphur containing product.
Joint design selection depth to width ratios
TECHNOLOGY
Lamellar
Tearing

TECHNOLOGY

Lamellar Tearing
Characteristics
TECHNOLOGY
 Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due

to the solid inclusions linking up under the
influences of welding stresses
Occurs at beneath of HAZ or near HAZ
It forms when the welding stresses act in the
short transverse direction of the material (through
thickness direction)
 Low ductile materials containing high levels of
impurities are very susceptible

TECHNOLOGY Lamellar Tearing
• Occur only in rolled direction of the parent material
• Associated with restrained joints subjected to through
thickness stresses on corners and tees
• Presence of elongated stringers such of nonmetallic
inclusion such as silicates and sulfides parallel to steels
rolling plane will produce poor through thickness ductility
of the plate.
• Tearing will triggered by this such non metallic inclusion
near the weld or it just outside HAZ during weld
contraction.

Step like appearance
Cross section
Susceptible joint types

Corner butt weld
(single-bevel)
Tee fillet weld Tee butt weld

(double-bevel)

Lamellar Tearing
Critical area
TECHNOLOGY
Critical area
Critical
area

Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
TECHNOLOGY
 The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of impurities

( Z type material )

Short Tensile Tests
A test for a materials susceptibility to lamellar tearing
TECHNOLOGY
Friction Welded Caps

Short Tensile Specimen
Sample of Parent Material
Through
Thickness
Ductility
The results are given as a STRA value

Short Transverse Reduction in Area

Lamellar Tearing
TECHNOLOGY

( Z type material )
 Change joint design

Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a Tee joint to avoid lamellar tearing
TECHNOLOGY
Susceptible Improved
Non-susceptible
Susceptible
Non-susceptible Susceptible Less susceptible
Gouge base metal

and fill with weld
metal before welding Prior buttering of the joint
the joint with a ductile layer of weld
metal may avoid lamellar
Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd
tearing Faisal Yusof
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible Non-Susceptible
Prior welding both plates An open corner joint may

may be grooved to avoid be selected to avoid
lamellar tearing lamellar tearing

Lamellar Tearing
TECHNOLOGY

( Z type material )
 Change joint design
 Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint
during welding
 The use of buttering runs with low strength weld metal
 Hydrogen precautions e.g use low hydrogen electrodes
 Shift welding process such as Electro slag welding
 Use forging or casting joint.
Place soft filler wire between the joint e.g T joint to reduce
stresses during expansion and contraction of weld metal.
 Pre heating helps on removal of Hydrogen on the plate.
TECHNOLOGY
Weld Decay

TECHNOLOGY

TECHNOLOGY

Weld Decay
Characteristics
TECHNOLOGY
 Weld decay may occurs in unstabilized austenitic stainless

steels with carbon content above 0.1%
 Also known as knife line attack or crack
 Chromium carbide precipitation takes place at the critical
range of 450oC-850oC (sensitising temperature )
At this temperature range carbon is absorbed by the
chromium, which causes a local reduction in chromium
content by promoting chromium carbides.
 Loss of chromium content results in lowering the materials
resistance to corrosion attack allowing rusting to occur

Precautions for Weld Decay
 The use of a low carbon grade stainless steel e.g.
TECHNOLOGY
304L, 316L, 316ELC with carbon content < 0.03%
 The use of a stabilized grade stainless steel e.g.

321, 347, 348 recommended for severe corrosive
conditions and high temperature operating conditions
 Standard grades may require PWHT, this

involves heating the material to a temperature
over 1100oC and quench the material, this
restores the chromium content at the grain boundary,
a major disadvantage of this heat treatment is the
high amount of distortion
TECHNOLOGY
Fatigue
Cracks

TECHNOLOGY Fatigue Testing

Fatigue Cracks
 Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress
TECHNOLOGY
conditions
 Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch
and weld defects i.e stress concentration area
 All welded materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking
 Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point
referred to as a initiation point
 The fracture surface is smooth in appearance
sometimes displaying beach markings
 The final mode of failure may be brittle or
ductile or a combination of both
Fatigue Cracks
Secondary mode of failure Fatigue fracture surface
TECHNOLOGY
ductile fracture rough fibrous smooth in appearance

appearance
Initiation points / weld defects

TECHNOLOGY Fatigue Cracks
A fatigue failure
on a small bore
pipe work

Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
Toe grinding, profile grinding.
TECHNOLOGY
The elimination of poor profiles

The elimination of partial penetration welds and
weld defects
Operating conditions under the materials
endurance limits
The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical
damage cap/root undercut
The selection of the correct material for the service
conditions of the component
TECHNOLOGY
Any
Any Questions?
Questions?

TECHNOLOGY Questions
QU 1. Briefly discuss the four essential factors for hydrogen
cracking to occur
QU 2. State four precautions to reduce the chance of hydrogen

cracking
QU 3. In which type of steel is weld decay is experienced and

state how it can be prevented
QU 4. State the precautions to reduce the chances of

solidification cracking
QU 5. State four the essential factors for lamellar tearing to

occur

3rd WIS5 Weldability N.PPT 1. Home

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

3rd WIS5 Weldability N.PPT 1. Home

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TECHNOLOGY

It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

other alloying elements contents.

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

required to make it useful for an application.

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Plain Carbon Steels

2. Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6% Carbon

3. High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4% Carbon

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Alloy steels are divided into 2 groups

1. Low Alloy Steels < 7% extra alloying elements

2. High Alloy Steels > 7% extra alloying elements

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

(a) substitutional (b) interstitial

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

 Tungsten: High temperature strength

 Titanium: Elimination of carbide precipitation

 Vanadium: Fine grain – Toughness

 Copper: Corrosion resistance and strength

Hardening capacity: C, Mn, Mo, Cr, Ni, Cu

Elevated Temperature Properties: Cr, Mo, V

Atmospheric corrosion Resistance: Cu, Ni

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

The grain structure of steel will influence its weldability,

The type and number of elements present in the

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

•Weld heat : Also call arc energy, is the amount of electrical

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

The parent material undergoes microstructure changes

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

 Cooling rate, fast cooling higher hardness

 Arc energy, high arc energy wider HAZ

 The HAZ can not be eliminated in a fusion weld

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Arc energy= Amps x volts

Heat input = 200 X 32 X 60

Heat input = 1.6 kJ/mm

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Low heat input - fast cooling

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

 Higher the CE, lower the weldability

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

be welded by most of the common welding processes,

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Weldability is a function of many inter-related

Composition of parent material

 Joint design and size

 Process and technique

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

therefore it is normally assessed in relative terms

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

parameters amps, volts travel speed, heat input.

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

materials can be welded to give an acceptable joint

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof

Copyright © 2003 TWI Ltd Faisal Yusof