nickel all lower the eutectoid concentration of
ALLOYING
ELEMENTS IN
STEEL
By Terence Bell
Metals Expert
Updated: December 16, 2014.
Steel is essentially iron and carbon alloyed with
certain additional elements.
The process of alloying is used to change the
chemical composition of steel and improve its
properties over carbon steel or adjust them to meet
the requirements of a particular application.
Different alloying elements each have their own
affect on the properties of steel. Some of the
properties that can be improved through alloying
include:
Stabilizing austenite: Elements such as nickel,
manganese, cobalt and copper increase the
temperatures range in which austenite exists.
Stabilizing ferrite: Chromium, tungsten,
molybdenum, vanadium, aluminum and silicon
can have the effect of lowering carbon's solubility
in austenite. This results in an increase in the
amount of carbides in the steel and decreases the
temperature range in which austenite exists.
Carbide forming: Many minor metals, including
chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium,
niobium, tantalum and zirconium, form strong
carbides that - in steel - increase hardness and
strength. Such steels are often used to make high
speed steel and hot work tool steel.
Graphitizing: Silicon, nickel, cobalt and
aluminum can decrease the stability of carbides in
steel, promoting their breakdown and the
formation of free graphite.
Decrease of eutectoid concentration: Titanium,
molybdenum, tungsten, silicon, chromium and
carbon.
Increase corrosion resistance: Aluminum, silicon
and chromium form protective oxide layers on the
surface of steel, thereby protecting the metal from
further deterioration in certain environments.
Below is a list of commonly used alloying
elements and their affect on steel (standard
content in brackets):
Aluminum – Al (0.95-1.30%): A deoxidizer. Al is
used to limit growth of austenite grains.
Boron – B (0.001-0.003%): A hardenability agent
that improves deformability and machinability.
Boron is added to fully killed steel and only needs
to be added in very small quantities to have a
hardening affect. Small amounts of Titanium +
Aluminum help boron additions resist nitriding or
oxidation to increase the yield from boron’s
hardenability effect. Additions of boron are most
effective in low carbon steels.
Chromium – Cr (0.5-18%): A key component of
stainless steels. At over 12 percent content,
chromium significantly improves corrosion
resistance. The metal also improves hardenability,
strength, response to heat treatment and wear
resistance.
Cobalt – Co: Improves strength at high
temperatures and magnetic permeability.
Copper – Cu (0.1-0.4%): Most often found as a
residual agent in steels, copper is also added to
produce precipitation hardening properties and
increase corrosion resistance.
Lead – L: Although virtually insoluble in liquid or
solid steel, lead is sometimes added to carbon
steels via mechanical dispersion during pouring in
order to improve machinability.
Manganese – Mn (0.25-13%): Increases strength
at high temperatures by eliminating the formation
of iron sulfides. Manganese also improves
hardenability, ductility and wear resistance. Like
nickel, manganese is an austenite forming element
and can be used in the AISI 200 Series of
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Austenitic stainless steels as a substitute for
nickel.
Molybdenum – Mo (0.2-5.0%): Found in small
quantities in stainless steels, molybdenum
increases hardenability and strength, particular at
high temperatures. Often used in chromiumnickel
austenitic steels, molybdenum protects against
pitting corrosion caused by chlorides and sulfur
chemicals.
Nickel – Ni (2-20%): Another alloying element
critical to stainless steels, nickel is added at over
8% content to high chromium stainless steel.
Nickel increases strength, impact strength and
toughness, while also improving resistance to
oxidization and corrosion. It also increases
toughness at low temperatures when added in
small amounts.
Niobium – Nb: Has the benefit of stabilizing
carbon by forming hard carbides and, so, is often
found in high temperature steels. In small
amounts, niobium can significantly increase the
yield strength and, to a lesser degree, the tensile
strength of steels, as well as have a moderate
precipitation strengthening affect.
Nitrogen – N: Increases the austenitic stability of
stainless steels and improves yield strength in
such steels.
Phosphorus – P: Phosphorus is often added with
sulphur to improve machinability in low alloy
steels. It also adds strength and increases
corrosion resistance.
Selenium – Se: Increases machinability.
Silicon – Si (0.2-2.0%): This metalloid improves
strength, elasticity, acid resistance and results in
larger grain sizes, thereby, leading to greater
magnetic permeability. Because silicon is used in
a deoxidizing agent in the production of steel, it is
almost always found in some percentage in all
grades of steel.
Sulfur (“Sulphur” - British) – S (0.08-0.15%):
Added in small amounts, sulphur improves
machinability without resulting in hot shortness.
With the addition of manganese hot shortness is
further reduced due to the fact that manganese
sulphide has a higher melting point than iron
sulphide.
Titanium – Ti: Improves both strength and
corrosion resistance while limiting austenite grain
size. At 0.25-0.60 percent titanium content, carbon
combines with the titanium, allowing chromium to
remain at grain boundaries and resist oxidization.
Also used to maintain boron content additions in
low carbon boron steels (10b35).
Tungsten – W: Produces stable carbides and
refines grain size so as to increase hardness,
particularly at high temperatures. Used to make
high speed tool steels for drills + cutters that do
not loose their hardness sharpness at high
temperatures.
Vanadium – V (0.15%): Like titanium and
niobium, vanadium can produce stable carbides
that increase strength at high temperatures. By
promoting a fine grain structure, ductility can be
retained.
Zirconium – Zr (0.1%): Increases strength and
limits grains sizes. Strength can be notably
increased at very low temperatures (below
freezing). Steel's that include zirconium up to
about 0.1% content will have smaller grains sizes
and resist fracture.
Sources:
SubsTech. Substances & Technology. Effect of
Alloying Elements on Steel Properties. URL:
www.substech.com
Chase Alloys. Effects of Alloying Elements in
Steel.
URL: www.chasealloys.co.uk
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 • Work surface oxidation.

Metal Forming • Shorter tool life (Dies and rolls).

Advantages of Cold Forming

Processes • Better accuracy, closer tolerances.

• Better surface finish
Metal Forming (Hot and Cold Forming) • Strain hardening increases strength and hardness.
Metal forming (hot and cold forming ) includes a large group of • No heating of work required.
manufacturing processes in which plastic deformation is used Disadvantages of Cold Forming
to change the shape of metal workpieces.
• Hot and cold forming are done by applying pressure on the work • Higher forces and power required for deformation.
piece to cause plastic deformation (materials can be shaped to • Surfaces of starting work must be free of scale and dirt.
the desired size and dimensions by causing plastic • Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that
deformation with them). can be done.
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the Forming Presses
yield strength of the metal.
• Presses are used to create necessary pressure to form
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the the material.
die.
• Presses are used for forging, sharing, drawing, bending,
• Hot forming is done when the temperature of the workpiece is rolling, extrusion and a variety of different forming
raised above the Recrystallization temperature (point). processes.
• Recrystallization point- a specific temperature at which the
grain of the metal will change shape.
Metal
Al 80
Cu 120
Fe 450
Pb -4
Ni 370
Z 10
• There are tow types of action can be done by presses:
Sn -4
1.Slow force with squeezing action.
W (Tungsten also known as wolfram) 1200
2.Sudden impact and pressure.

• Machines that create slow force are called presses, while

machines that include impact are classed as hammers.
Hot forming- Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature. • Types of presses:
1.The basic press.
Cold forming- Deformation at temperatures below the 2.Drop hammers.
recrystallization temperature. Forming Processes
Stresses in Metal Forming 1. Shearing & Punching. 11. Spinning.
2. Forging. 12. bending.
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually 3. Rolling. 13.
compressive Twisting.
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion 4. Coining & Stamping. 14.
Drawing.
• However, some forming processes
5. Sinking.
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
6. Extrusion.
– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
1. Sinking.
– Still others apply shear stresses
2. Extrusion.
Material Properties in Metal Forming
3. Stretch forming.
Shearing and Punching (Hot & Cold)
• Desirable material properties: - Shearing: cutting process used on sheet metal and plates. - Cold forming.
- A shearing operation cuts the work using a punch and die.
– Low yield strength and high ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when
work temperature is raised.
Advantages of Hot Forming 6 KHDULQJSURFHVVLVFO
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• Lower forces and power required.
• The impurities are broken and distributed through the metal.
- Shearing is limited in the thickness, that can be cut by
particular machine limitation & by the hardness and density
of material.
- Shearing is a term generally given to a straight cutting.
-Shearing is used in metalworking and also with paper and
plastics.
- Used to cut crank shafts blanks (surface) of heavy forged
steel, paper, fibers, ceramics, plastic, rubber, wood.
Some types of shearing operations:
1.Notching- angular cutter, not straight as shearing. is a
metal-cutting process used on sheet metal or thin bar stock.

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 1)There is one ram and hammer in upset forging.
2)The object is formed by displacing the material into the form cavity similar to the
drop forging.

1.Nibbling- The nibbling process cuts a contour by producing

a series of notches. Same as Notching.
3. Piercing- is a process of shearing a shaped hole in sheet
metal or plate.

- Upset forging used to form bolts or rivets heads, engine

valves and other types of product where wide head is required.

3. Blanking- part produced from piercing.

Swaging
Swaging is the process to reduce the diameter of object by
repeat impact.
Forging (Hot & Cold) Swaging is usually a cold working process; however, it is
sometimes done as a hot working process.
- Use impact & pressure to form an object.
- Impact process includes: a)Smith forging.
b)Drop forging.
c)Impact forging.
d)Upset forging.
e)Swaging forging. Press Forging
Smith forging - Similar to drop forging except that the press forging
- Is the oldest type of the metal working process in modern works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or
forging. force.
- The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop
Smith forging used with metals in hot states to provide desired
shape or size. forging, is its ability to deform the complete workpiece. Drop
forging usually only deforms the surfaces of the workpiece.
Drop Forging - Press forging can often be done in one closing of the dies,
Is similar to smith forging except that shaped dies on both allowing for easy automation.
the upper die (hammer) and lower die are shaped. Drop - Press forging allows to produce finished shapes and
forging implies a, fast, high energy transfer of the force to dimensions.
forge the work.

Impact Forging Rolling (Hot & Cold)

Impact forging is essentially hammer forging in which both • Process of forming material by squeezing it between 2 rolls in
dies are moved horizontally, converging on the workpiece. which special channels are made.
• Used for reducing the thickness of slabs into sheet, plates,
bars, tubes etc.

Upset Forging
-Similar to impact forging in that hammers are horizontal.
-Done in either hot or cold states.
-two distinguishing features upset forging from impact forging:

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 Thread Rolling • Used for shaping of small parts where fine surface
• Thread rolling is used to form threads on cylindrical parts requirements must be met.
by rolling them between two dies. • Used for making small molds mold cavities for plastic molding
and die casting in softer materials, soft steel.
• Most thread rolling operations are performed by cold
working in thread rolling machines.
• Advantages:
(1) better material utilization (economical method).
(2) stronger threads due to work hardening.
(4) better fatigue resistance due to compressive stresses.

Extrusion (Hot & Cold)

• Extrusion is the process in which material is forced through
Roll Piercing a die made in a form of a given shape.
• Ring rolling is a specialized hot working process for making • Used with lead, copper, brass, bronz, aluminum- alloys
because of their extruding temperature is low.
seamless thick-walled tubes.
• Advantages of extrusion:
1.Large variety of cross sections can be made.
2.Can be used with low strength materials.
3.Good dimensional accuracy, finished
surfaces, working strength & toughness.
The process is based on the principle that when a solid cylindrical part is 4. High productivity.
compressed on its circumference, high tensile stresses are developed at its
center. Compressive stresses on a solid cylindrical billet are applied by two rolls. Classification of extrusion:
A mandrel is used to control the size and finish of the hole created by the action.
1.Direct extrusion.
Coining & Stamping (Hot & Cold) 2.Indirect extrusion.
Coining 3.Impact extrusion.

1.A metal billet is located into a

container, Direct extrusion
and a ram compresses the material,
forcing it to flow through one or more
openings in a die at the opposite end of
• Stock is displaced by force & impact into the cavity of die. the container.
• Used to form small pieces such as coins & medallions.
2. Indirect extrusion
• The volume of blank material must be carefully controlled (allowed
to fill cavity only).
The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the
opposite end of the container. One advantage of
Stamping
the indirect extrusion process is that there is no
• Stamping (also known as pressing) includes a variety of
friction, during the process, between the billet
sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as
and the container liner. Indirect extrusion
punching using a machine press or stamping press,
requires less force than in direct extrusion
blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.
needed.
• This could be a single stage operation where every
stroke of the press produces the desired form on the 3. Impact extrusion
sheet metal part, or could occur through a series of
Used upon softer materials in their cold state to form
stages. The process is usually carried out on sheet
metal, but can also be used on other materials. close containers,
Sinking & Hobbing (cold) (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow
or semi-hollow cross section; (b) hollow
• Sinking, also known as doming, dishing or dapping, is a
and (c) semi-hollow cross sections.
metalworking technique whereby flat sheet metal is
formed into a non-flat object by hammering it into a
concave indentation. Typical products made by extrusion
are railings for sliding doors, tubing
• Sinking is used in the manufacture of many items, from
having carious cross-sections,
jewellery to plate armour.
structural and architectural shapes,
Hobbing (Hubbing) and door and windows frames.
Hobbing is similar in some respects to the coining process

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 Drawing (Hot & Cold) Spinning (Cold)
Similar to extrusion, except: stock (bar) Spinning is a metalworking process by which a disc or tube of metal is rotated at high speed
and formed into an axially symmetric part. Spinning can be performed by hand or by a CNC
pulling force is applied lathe.

Commonly used to make wires from round bars, cylindrical, hallow

shapes, solid shaped rod & angular stock.

Advantages: inexpensive dies, uncomplicated tool.

Disadvantages: requires machine time, needs skilled operator.
Some applications include cookware, gas cylinders.
Materials: ductile metal may be formed, from aluminum or stainless steel.
Stretch Forming (Cold)
Stretch forming is a sheet-metal deformation process in which the sheet metal is
Bending (Cold & Hot)
stretched and bent in order to achieve shape change. • Bending is the process of forming bar stock, tubing & pipes into a variety of shapes.
Stretch forming is widely used in the aircraft and aerospace industries to • Bending is normally done cold but for large & heavy pieces it may be done hot.
economically produce large sheet-metal parts.

Bulging (Cold)
The basic principle in bulging (Bulgeforming) is to insert a tubing into a
mold (die), then introducing fluid under extremely high pressure to Several factors are important in specifying a bending operation:
compress the tube ends towards the center of the mold while forcing the
tubing wall to expand into the mold cavity all in one motion.
1. Determine the smallest bend radius that can be formed without
cracking the metal.
2. Metal ductility.
This process is being applied to low carbon,
stainless steel, copper, brass, aluminum and 3. Thickness of material.
other variety of alloy tubing's.
Twisting (Hot & Cold)
Twisting subjects the sheet metal or bars, rods to a torsion loading rather than a
bending load, thus causing a twist in the object over its length. This type of operation
Deep Drawing (Hot & Cold) has limited applications. It is used to make such products as fan and propeller blades.
• Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank
is radially drawn into a forming die by the mechanical action of a punch. HIGH-ENERGY-RATE FORMING
• Used for repairing containers from single part by numbers of stages. Several processes have been developed to form metals using large amounts of energy
applied in a very short time.

Types of HERF:
1. Explosive forming.
2. Electric spark forming.
3. electromagnetic forming.
• Used to form shapes from Aluminum, Brass, Cold-rolled steel, Stainless steel. But
Softer materials are much easier to deform and therefore require less force to draw. • An instantaneous force of great magnitude is created and transmitted to
the workpiece through a liquid medium.
Automotive body and structural parts, aircraft components
• Used to shape simple and complex parts.
Ironing (Cold) 1. Explosive Forming
• The process of reducing the thickness (and/or) the shape of a cylindrical wall by forcing it
Explosive forming involves the use of an explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) metal
between a die and a punch.
into a die cavity within container of water.
An explosive charge is placed in the water at a certain distance above the work.

One example of ironing can be found in the manufacture of aluminum beverage cans, Explosive forming: (1) setup, (2) explosive is detonated, and (3) shock wave forms part and
which are actually pressed from flat sheets of thicker material. plume escapes water surface.
Disadvantages:
1. Low rate of production.
2. Involves some danger.

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 Explosive forming is reserved for large parts, typical of the aerospace industry. 1. Greater depth of forming can be obtained compared with normal pressing or drawing
operations.
2. Low cost.

Explosive forming was used in the 1960s for aerospace applications, such as the
chine plates of the SR-71 reconnaissance plane and various Soviet rocket parts; it
continued to be developed in Russia.
2. Electric Spark Forming (Electrohydraulic forming)
Spark forming similar to explosive forming in that the force is generated within a
liquid such as water, when spark generates
gases created from the liquid. The difference
is in the method of generating the energy
and the smaller amounts of energy that are
released.
is a HERF (High energy Rate Forming) process in
which a
shock wave to deform the work into a die cavity
is generated by the discharge of electrical energy
between two electrodes submerged in a
transmission fluid (water).

High voltage spark when ignited in water will generate up to 6000 hp in a little
time as 40 million of a second.
Advantages of spark over explosive:
1. Great safety.
2. Low cost.
3. Electromagnetic Forming
Electromagnetic forming, also called magnetic pulse forming, is a process in which sheet
metal is deformed by the mechanical force of an electromagnetic field induced in the work
part by an energized coil.

Electromagnetic forming: (1) setup in which

coil is inserted into tubular work part
surrounded by die; (2) formed part.

The coil, energized by a capacitor, produces a

magnetic field. This generates eddy currents in the work that produce their own magnetic
field. The induced field opposes the
primary field, producing a mechanical force that deforms the part
into the surrounding cavity
RUBBER FORMING PROCESSES
1. Guerin Process
The Guerin process uses a thick rubber pad (or other flexible material) to form sheet metal
over a positive form block.
The rubber pad is confined in a steel container. As the ram descends, the rubber gradually
surrounds the sheet, applying pressure to deform it to
the shape of the form block.

Advantages:
1. Low cost of the tooling.
2. The rubber pad can be used with different form
blocks.

These factors make rubber forming attractive in small-quantity production,

such as the aircraft industry.
Hydroforming
Hydroforming is similar to the Guerin process; the difference is that it substitutes a
rubber diaphragm filled with hydraulic fluid in place of the thick rubber pad.

Advantages:
1. Uniforming thickness of the work.