UNIT- 1

Lecture-5 & 6

Introduction-Classification of materials on the basis of energy gap

• Conductors
• Semiconductors
• Dielectrics
• Superconductors
• Ferroelectrics
• Pyroelectrics
• Piezoelectrics
• Perovskites (titanates, zirconates, hafnates)
Formation of Energy bands in solids

• Electrons occupy energy states in atomic orbitals.

• When several atoms are brought close to each other in a solid these energy
states split in to a series of energy states (molecular orbitals).
• The spacing between these states are so small that they overlap to form an
energy band
Estimation of number of atoms

Simple cubic lattice- 1 atom /cell

Interatomic distance ~ 5A°

Volume of unit cell (V) = 125 x 10^(-24) per CC

No. of atom / Unit volume = 1 / V = 0.8 x 10 ^(22) /CC

NO OF ATOMS /UNIT VOLUME ~

Energy Vs Interatomic Spacing-Lithium

As Li atoms are brought together from infinity, the atomic orbitals overlap and give rise
to bands. The 3s orbitals give rise to the 3s band, 2p orbitals to the 2p band, and so on.
The various bands overlap to produce a single band in which the energy is nearly
continuous
Metal-overlapping energy bands

• In a metal, the various energy bands overlap to give a single energy band that is
only partially full of electrons. There are states with energies up to the vacuum
level, where the electron is free.
• At 0K temperature, all the energy levels up to fermi level are full.
Splitting of atomic energy levels in copper depends on interatomic spacing
Electron configuration of copper

• 4S band overlaps the 3d band and hence permits conduction

Energy band development for Diamond (Insulator)
Energy band for Silicon
Fermi Level
• The Fermi level is the surface of that sea at absolute zero where no electrons will have
enough energy to rise above the surface.
• The Fermi function f(E) gives the probability that a given available electron energy
state will be occupied at a given temperature.
Conductors (Eg = 0 and Eg < 1eV)

• Conductors are mainly metals and alloys. Their electrical resistivity ρ (reciprocal of
electrical conductivity) is the least.
• Gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), aluminium (Al) are good electrical conductors
Types
Insulators (Eg > 3eV)
Types

• Dielectrics have the highest values of resistivity. They are used as insulators and
capacitors etc.
• Mica, Bakelite, elastomeric fibre, and paper are some examples of solid dielectrics;
Transformer oil, silicon oil, varnishes are liquid dielectrics; while the air, nitrogen,
ozone are gaseous dielectrics.
Semi-conductors (3eV > Eg > 1eV)

• Semiconductors have properties in-between the conductors and dielectrics. They are
widely used for making solid state devices.
• Examples - compound form such as GaAs, CdTe and in alloy form
Types