Topic 5.2 - Composites & Non Metal

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Topic 5.2:
Composites and Non-Metallics
AIRCRAFTSTRUCTURE/REVISION2 1
INTRODUCTION
On completion of this topic you should be able to:
5.2.1 Describe basic composite terminology and explain their interaction in

typical composite structures .
5.2.2 Describe accepted practices for cutting, sanding or drilling of FRP
composite structure identifying the appropriate tool combinations for different
FRP materials and state special precautions and handling relating to their use .
5.2.3 Identify the advantages/ disadvantages of matrix/fibre combinations and
describe the methods of laminations of FRP materials
5.2.4 Describe hot and cold bonding methods and demonstrate metal to metal /
metal composite bonding .
5.2.5 Explain FRP repair schemes including associated curing methods
5.2.6 Identify applicable environmental conditions that apply to composite and
non-metallic materials structures and describe the methods of protection
used
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TERMINOLOGY
Thread Count
The number of yarns (threads) per inch or centimetre in either the
lengthwise (warp) or crosswise (fill or weft) direction of woven cloth.
☻
TERMINOLOGY
Fibre – Direction
The orientation or alignment of the longitudinal axis of the Fibre with respect to
a stated reference axis.
Fibre – Content
The amount of fibre present in a composite. This is usually expressed as a
percentage volume fraction or weight fraction of the composite.
Resin Content
The amount of resin in a laminate expressed as either a percentage of total weight or
total volume.
☻
MATRIX/FIBRE PROPERTIES
Fibre dominated properties:
• Tensile strength, and to a certain extent, bending in the fibre direction, are fibre
dominated properties.
• Ply orientations and type of fibre reinforcement used have a strong effect.
Matrix damage, or other matrix problems, may have a small effect on tensile
strength of a composite structure
While matrix damage will have a very large effect on compressive strength.
☻
MATRIX/FIBRE PROPERTIES
Matrix dominated properties are:
• compressive strength
• bending in the off axis direction
• shear loading
Ply orientations and type of matrix system used also have a strong effect on these
properties.
Damage to matrix system such as

• De-lamination
• porosity, or
• too low a resin/fibre ratio,.
will cause these properties to degrade rapidly eg
☻
PLY ORIENTATION
Solid laminate panels and composite
repairs are typically fabricated using
woven cloth or unidirectional tape.
The loads which these structures can
take is heavily dependant on details of
the ply orientations, especially in
unidirectional tape.
For example: If strength is required in
one direction only in a composite
laminate or repair then unidirectional
tape would be used with no variation on
ply direction.
When bidirectional woven cloth is used,
ply orientation is still important as the
majority of fibres run in the Warp
direction.
Boron crack repair

☻
WARP CLOCK ORIENTATION
Counter clockwise warp clock (CCW)
The CCW clock is drawn from the manufacturing
standpoint where the plies are viewed from the inside
looking toward the tool.
Clockwise warp clock (CW)

The CW clock is drawn from the repair standpoint
where the plies are viewed from the outside of the
structure, or the tool surface, looking in.
☻
REPAIR WARP CLOCK
A repair warp clock can be fabricated from cardboard and is an invaluable

reference aid during the cutting of plies and lay up.
☻
BALANCED LAMINATE
A composite laminate in which all laminate at angles other than 0°and 90°
• occur only in  pairs (not necessarily adjacent) and
• are symmetrical around the centerline.
This type of laminate will have the least tendency to bow after cure.
☻
SYMMETRICAL & UNSYMMETRICAL LAYUP
A symmetrical laminate refers to a laminate in which all of the ply orientations are
symmetrical about the midplane of the laminate.
That is, the ply orientations of the laminate is a “mirror image" from the centreline of
the lay up.
Symmetry helps avoid thermal twisting during the cool down after cure cycle.
☻
FRP IDENTIFICATION
It is not always possible to visually identify the composition and structure of a fibre
reinforced plastic.
The aircraft manufacturers SRM provides a description of the composite and any
relevant details such as the lay up of plies and their orientation.
If however the structure and composition of the composite cannot be determined

there is a crude test available for composite identification.
☻
BURN TEST
The resin can be burned from a damaged
piece of FRP from the aircraft.
Polyester resin will burn off in a match or
candle flame.
Epoxy resin will require a low intensity flame
such as propane to burn off.
With the resin burnt off you should be able
to see:
• The number of plies

• Whether the plies are uni-directional or
bi-directional
• The relative orientation of the plies
Fire damaged 777 engine cowl

☻
SAFETY
Always use the appropriate P.P.E

when dealing with composite
materials.
☻
SAFETY
Grinding, drilling, sanding and machining of
composite materials generates dust and toxic
noxious fumes.
It should always be carried out in dedicated
areas that have extraction facilities.
The dust generated from working with
Carbon/Graphite fibre composites will cause
damage to electrical components.
Grit from grit blasting activities should always

be contained - grit can seriously damage
precision components and contaminate aircraft
fuel tanks.
☻
ENVIRONMENT CONTROL
The composite facility needs to be temperature and humidity controlled.
Hygrometer - Temperature and

humidity recording
☻
DRYING OUT WET LAMINATES
Damaged composite structures can be stored in an environment at
104°F(40°C) at 40% RH while awaiting repair.
However it would be prohibitively expensive for most repair facilities to

have a dedicated drying and storage room.
The most cost effective option is to repair the composite structure as soon
as possible after the damage has been sustained.
☻
Drying methods
There are several methods used for drying out wet

laminates, these are:
• Autoclave
• Recirculating air oven
• Heater blankets
• Heat lamps
• Localised hot air blower
Note
Any system of heating must be controlled by a
closed loop temperature control system.
☻
Where possible the entire composite
structure should be dried out. Failure to
remove all moisture will result in:
• Adhesion and bond durability being
compromised
• Residual undetected moisture creating
additional disbonding when the
structure is heated for repair
Heater blankets
☻
NEGLIGIBLE DAMAGE REPAIR
Negligible damage is damage that may be corrected by a simple procedure with no

restrictions on flight operations.
The limits for negligible damage will be found in the aircraft SRM.
Examples of negligible damage are:

• Minor erosion damage to the resin matrix that does not extend into the
underlying fibres
• Minor denting of a composite surface with no damage to the underlying fibres or
structure
☻
NEGLIGIBLE DAMAGE REPAIR
Negligible damage repair still requires observance of the correct surface
preparation and surface restoration techniques.
Erosion wear that does not extend into the underlying fibres can be rectified by
resin wiping.
Minor denting that does not involve damage to the underlying structure and fibres
can be repaired by applying an Epoxy resin fill and fare compound.
☻
REPAIR CONSIDERATIONS
From a repair standpoint technicians will generally be applying repairs to composite structures
that are detailed in applicable aircrafts SRM.
However there will be times when a proposed repair falls outside the scope of SRM.
In these cases the technician in conjunction with local engineering staff and aircraft
manufacturer must design a repair that will return structural integrity to component without
compromising original design requirements of component.
These types of repairs are often called expanded repairs.
Warning
Under no circumstances should composite repairs that fall outside scope of SRM and which
have not been approved by a regulatory authority be applied to an aircraft.
THIS WOULD BE A CAREER LIMITING DECISION
☻
REPAIR CONSIDERATIONS
FRP repair considerations such as:
• strength,
• stiffness,
• ultimate strain,
• ply overlap related to patch repair,
• mismatch of metal/composite strengths and
• cure stress
have already been factored into repair

schemes outlined in Aircraft SRMs.
However should a proposed repair fall
outside the scope of the SRM, these factors
will need to be considered.
☻
BASIC REPAIR CONSIDERATIONS
In a theoretically ideal repair, one is trying to match, not exceed, the original
strength, stiffness, and weight of the original structure.
In an actual repair, it is not possible to match all three simultaneously.
To achieve the original strength, the repaired part will be stiffer and heavier than
the original.
To match the original stiffness, the repaired part will be weaker and slightly heavier
than the original, and so on.
Therefore repair design involves evaluating trade-offs among these parameters,
especially with stiffness- critical structures such as helicopter rotor blades.
☻
Stiffness discontinuities
Repairs should not have high stiffness near edges. This leads to peel mode failures in
adhesive bonded repairs. This is why gently tapered repairs are usually applied.
☻
Repair zones need to be taken into consideration when inspecting damage and devising a
repair scheme.
☻
STEP CUT REPAIR
Step back repairs are generally not

favoured for laminate repairs as there is a
high risk of damaging sub plies when
cutting the step backs.
☻
SCARF REPAIR
Scarf repairs are a great deal easier

to fabricate than step cut repairs
and there is less risk of damaging
underlying plies.
For this reason they are favoured
over step cut repairs.
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CORE SPLICING
The joining of segments of a core by bonding with foaming adhesive, or by
overlapping each segment and then driving them together.
☻
SANDING COMPOSITES
Hole deburring
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AIR TOOLS
¼“ Pneumatic die grinder
☻
FINISHING TOOLS
Is used in hand held air grinders and accepts surface
conditioning discs as well as abrasive discs.
“3M” Roloc disc

☻
AIR TOOLS
Air tools used for cutting, trimming, drilling, and finishing composites should
exhaust from the rear to prevent contamination of surfaces.
☻
SANDING COMPOSITES
Kevlar and other composite

laminates should be sanded from
either surface with the cutting
actions directed to the interior of
the laminate with each surface
sanded individually.
Edge Deburring
☻
DRILLING COMPOSITES
Ideally controlled feed drills should be used when drilling composite
materials, however the practical reality in repair environments is that
drilling is performed using normal hand drills.
Controlled feed drill

☻
DRILLING COMPOSITES
Use drill stops to prevent substrate

damage and also prevent hole breakout
damage.
Hole breakout can also be minimised by

using a metal sheet or a wooden block as
back up.
☻
DRILLING COMPOSITES
Brad point drills produce quality holes in

composite materials excluding Boron:
• Carbon/Graphite
• Glassfibre
• Kevlar (Aramid)
Ideal for hybrid laminates, where Kevlar is
used on interior and exterior surfaces.
Brad point drill (Carbide)

☻
BRAD POINT DRILL
Caution
Do not use brad point drills for cutting metals.
Due to delicate tip geometry do not use brad point drills in
conventional hand held drilling machines.
☻
DRILLING COMPOSITES
Uni drills
Uni Drills are a carbide combination drill/reamer style cutting

tool suitable for :
• Carbon/Graphite laminates
• Glassfibre laminates
However will not produce acceptable holes in Kevlar.
☻
DRILLING COMPOSITES
Wherever possible use the correct style of drill for the composite being drilled
to prevent the initiation of defects.
High speed drills can be used, however shortened drill life can lead to rejectable
conditions such as delaminations and fibre pull out.
Drilling defects
☻
COUNTERSINKING
Microstop countersink
Always use a pilot with cutters

and ensure that the pilot has
been relieved, this ensures a firm
seat in the cutter.
☻
COUNTERSINKING
S shaped positive rake countersink

cutters are particularly suited to
countersinking Aramid (Kevlar).
☻
HOLE CUTTING
Roto – bores will effectively cut composite materials because they
use peripheral cutting. Only the outside edge of the hole is cut,
greatly reducing friction and controlling diameter.
Roto - bore
☻
HOLE CUTTING
Hole sawing of composites should be performed at lower speeds (100 -
300 rpm), dependant on saw diameter.
Tungsten carbide hole saws are available with grit edges.
Hole saw
☻
CUTTING COMPOSITES
Blades used for trimming Glassfibre and carbon fibre laminates should be Grit
edged (tungsten carbide).
Jigsaws and bandsaws that are used for cutting Kevlar should not use grit edged
blades, but should instead use blades with an alternating tooth pattern and wave
set.
Cutting (Aramid) Kevlar

☻
CUTTING COMPOSITES
Nibblers are very effective on Kevlar laminates up to 0.100 inch thick.
☻
ROUTING COMPOSITES
Use template guides when routing composites to

prevent peripheral damage.
☻
TEMPLATE ROUTER
☻
HAND HELD ROUTER
Small hand held routers should never be used free hand,

always use a template.
☻
ROUTER BITS
Suitable for routing:

• Honeycomb
• Carbon/Graphite laminates
• Glassfibre laminates
Diamond cut bit
☻
ROUTER BITS
Designed for routing Aramid (Kevlar)
Herringbone router cutter

☻
PREPARATION EQUIPMENT
Scissors
Tweezers. Used for removing backing materials

☻
CONSUMABLES
Flash breaker tape
Tongue depressors (Adhesive

and resin mixing)
☻
RESIN AND ADHESIVE APPLICATORS
Resin roller
Squeegee
Paint Brush
☻
SURFACE PREPARATION
Surface preparation is fundamental to repair success.
It is crucial to the durability of composite repairs, regardless of whether those
repairs are metal to metal, metal to composite, or composite to composite.
Failure to adequately prepare a bonding surface may result in bond failure and/or
corrosion of the bond region.
There are three fundamental steps for surface preparation which are:
• Solvent degreasing
• Water break test
Generation of a chemically active surface and additionally, in the case of metallic

surfaces, chemical modification to enhance bond durability.
☻
SOLVENT DEGREASING
The primary purpose of solvent

degreasing is to remove contamination
from the surface prior to the generation
of a chemically active surface.
If contaminates are not removed, bond
durability will be compromised.
☻
SOLVENT DEGREASING
Solvents used for surface preparation should meet
the following requirements:
• Readily dissolve surface contaminants
• Rapidly evaporate to prevent re – contamination
of large areas
• Produce no residue on the surface
• Produce no adverse effects on the material
being cleaned
• Be of a guaranteed high grade of purity.
Analytical Reagent (AR) grade must be used for
final solvent degreasing.
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (M.E.K) and Acetone are solvents that are currently used for
Solvent degreasing.
☻
SOLVENT DEGREASING
Scrubbing Pads and Wipe cloths used must be changed
frequently during solvent degreasing.
Solvent wiping is to continue until no trace of

contaminant remains on the wipe cloths.
The final solvent wipes are to be performed using a

fresh wipe cloth for each pass.
Any contamination detected on the final wipes will

require repeated solvent degreasing.
Note
Only clean lint free white facial tissues or approved aircraft wipes should be used.
Under no circumstances use Shop rags or other propriety wipes be used.
☻
WATER BREAK TEST
Performed by spraying, pouring or squirting distilled de-ionised water onto the

surface so that a complete thin film of water covers the surface .
The film of water must remain intact for thirty seconds without any evidence of
surface tension breaking the film.
☻
WATER BREAK TEST
Water quality is critical to the surface preparation

process as the process is susceptible to
contamination.
Distilled de-ionised water is required.
☻
DRYING AFTER WATER BRAEK TEST
Following a successful water break test the surface must be thoroughly dried before
proceeding to the next step.
Drying is usually performed by use of hot air, either from a hand held hot air gun, an
external blower fitted with air filters or by placing the item in a recirculating air oven.
The surface should be heated to

temperature of 212°F (100°C) for five to
ten minutes after the surface appears dry.
Inadequate drying of surfaces prior to
bonding is a major factor to micro voiding
in adhesive joints.
☻
GENERATION OF CHEMICALLY ACTIVE
SURFACE
There are two methods of generating chemically active surfaces, these are:
Hand abrasion and Grit blasting.
Hand abrasion is not the preferred

method but is the most commonly
used.
Clean aluminium oxide grit paper is
used for the hand abrasion process.
☻
GENERATION OF CHEMICALLY ACTIVE
SURFACE
Grit blasting using clean 50 micron aluminium oxide grit is the preferred
method as the likelihood of surface contamination is reduced.
The propellant gas for grit blasting

should only be dry nitrogen.
Shop air should not be used due to
the likelihood of oil contamination.
Grit should not be recycled and
blasting pressures should be
regulated between 20-60 psi (150 –
450kPa)
☻
CHEMICAL MODIFICATION
Metals require chemical modification of surfaces to promote adhesion. Chemical
modification usually falls into two categories:
Coupling agents (long chain polymers) which attach to the surface and bond to the
adhesive, effectively coupling the adhesive to the metallic surface.
Acidic processes which modify and control the thickness of the oxide layer to produce
a thin well bonded film onto which the adhesive bonds.
Chemical modification processes will be detailed in the aircraft’s SRM.
☻
MIXING EQUIPMENT
☻
PRIMERS
Corrosion inhibiting primers are used on metallic surfaces where detailed in an
aircraft’s SRM.
Many repair manuals specify brush application of primers.
This is often inadequate as control of primer thickness cannot be assured.
To be effective primers require accurate control of spray thickness between 0.0002 to
0.0004 in (0.005 to 0.010 mm).
The propellant gas for primers should be dry nitrogen for the same reasons as grit
blasting.
Containment of overspray and control of toxic waste products should be tightly
controlled.
☻
MEASURING EQUIPMENT
Once surface prep is complete – apply adhesive and

lay up repair.
When mixing 2 part resins, accurate equipment is
required.
☻
PATCH REPAIR
☻
STEP CUT REPAIR
☻
SCARF REPAIR
☻
CORE SPLICING
☻
METHODS OF CURING
There are room temperature cure systems which can be accelerated by the use
of heat. (Two part Epoxy resin systems – Paste Adhesives and Laminating resins)
There are matrix systems which require heat to cure the composite to achieve
maximum matrix strength. (Film adhesives and Prepregs)
☻
ROOM TEMPERATURE CURING
Some repairs may be cured at room temperature
65°F to 80°F(18°C to 26°C) for 24 hours.
Curing can be accelerated by applying heat 140°F
to 160°F (60°C to 71°C).160°F should not be
exceeded.
Full cure strength is usually not achieved until after
five to seven days.
☻
EXOTHERMIC REACTION
A reaction that gives off heat when certain substances are mixed together.
The mixing of the two parts of an

epoxy resin system produces an
exothermic reaction.
Exotherm can exceed curing
temperature if uncontrolled.
☻
HEAT CURING
The most widely accepted method of curing structural composites employs the
use of resins which cure at higher temperatures. i.e. Film adhesives and
Prepregs.
Heat curing can be achieved by the use of a temperature controlling system in

conjunction with any of the following:
• Autoclave
• Recirculating air oven
• Heater blankets
• Heat lamps
☻
TEMPERATURE CURE CYCLES
Controlled curing of resin systems
is essential to realising the full
strength and durability of the
resin system .
Temperature cure profiles can be
programmed into the more
sophisticated temperature
controllers.
Typical high temperature cure

profile
Ramp and soak curing
☻
TEMPERATURE CURE CONTROL
Accurate temperature sensing is required. This is achieved through the use of
thermocouples.
Thermocouple types typically used with hot bonders are “J” type or “K” type.
“J” type
• negative red wire (constantan: 55%
copper, 45% nickel)
• positive white wire (iron)
• Accurate up to 700°F(371°C)
• Typically used with hot bonders of
American origin
☻
THERMOCOUPLES
“K” type are used with bonders of Australian

origin.
Thermocouple types are not interchangeable Thermocouple tester
☻
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Thermocouples are connected to temperature controllers, which are
used to ramp up cure temperatures and monitor the cook.
Manual step curing hot bond controller Fully programmable ramp and
soak hot bond controller
☻
RECIRCULATING AIR OVEN
Ovens offer controlled, uniform
temperature over all surfaces and should
have vacuum ports installed to provide
vacuum pressure while curing.
Care must be taken to prevent distortion

of the composite structure during
heating and cooling.
☻
HEATER BLANKETS
Heating blankets are probably the most widely accepted form of
applying heat to a composite component for repair work.
Heat blankets are made of flexible

silicone and come in variety of sizes.
Heating coils within the blanket are
powered by controller regulating unit
and temperature levels are sensed by
thermocouples.
☻
HEATING LAMPS
Extreme caution should be used when
using heat lamps as a curing system.
Engineering approval must be
established.
The temperature cannot be accurately

controlled as with other methods, and
this could lead to scorching and
blistering of the composite component.
They must never be used without a closed loop temperature control system.
☻
POST - CURE
Additional elevated-temperature cure, usually without pressure to improve final
properties and/or complete the cure, or decrease the percentage of volatiles in the
compound.
In certain resins, complete cure and ultimate mechanical properties are attained only
by exposure of the cured resin to higher temperatures than those of curing.
☻
PRESSURE APPLICATION METHODS
In conjunction with heat curing there must also be some method of applying pressure
to the composite.
Applying pressure consolidates the resin, assists in the wetting action of the resin,
reduces void content and porosity in the bond line and helps remove volatiles during
cure. This applies to room temperature curing adhesives as well.
Shot bags
The use of shot bags should be limited to field applications on room temperature
curing adhesives when no other means of pressure application are available.
Correct and even pressure distribution can not be assured, and this method of
pressure application should not be used when heat curing composites.
☻
PRESSURE APPLICATION METHODS
Mechanical clamping
As with shot bags mechanical clamping

should be restricted to applying pressure
to room temperature curing adhesives
only.
Knu vice clamps
Spring clamps
Clecos AIRCRAFTSTRUCTURE/REVISION2 85
☻
PRESSURE APPLICATION
Vacuum bagging
METHODS
Vacuum bagging is arguably the most

popular and cost effective method of
applying pressure to a repair site on
composite materials.
Vacuum pressure works by using
atmospheric pressure to apply an even
pressure over the surface of the repair.
☻
VACUUM BAG
☻
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Vacuum pump
Pressure regulator
☻
VACUUM BAGGING
Vacuum pressure Transducer
Vacuum fitting base plate
Vacuum gauge
☻
AUTOCLAVE
Autoclaves are usually used in the manufacture of composites and are not usually
used in the repair process.
Autoclaves are pressure vessels and with all pressure vessels , great care must be
observed when working with these items.
☻
AUTOCLAVE
Autoclaves will provide the necessary pressure and heat to cure
composite materials.
☻
CAUL PLATE
Smooth metal plates, free of surface
defects, the same size and shape as a
composite lay-up.
Used immediately in contact with the
lay-up during the curing process to
transmit normal pressure and
temperature, and to provide a
smooth surface on the finished
laminate.
☻
FIBRE ORIENTATION
Whenever repairing a composite

component, the fibre orientation of the
new patch must be in the same
direction as the original.
This is to allow any stress which is

imposed on the structure to flex
through the repair as well as the entire
structure.
Failure to observe correct fibre

orientation will reduce the strength of
the repair.
☻
IMPREGNATING RAW FABRIC
• Fabricate ply templates
• Pour the liquid resin onto the fabric
• Work the resin in to the fabric using a
squeegee
• Resin must fully permeate the fabric
• Be careful not to damage the fibre
orientation or fray the edges of the
patch with the squeegee
• Using the prepared templates cut out
the plies observing correct fibre
orientation
☻
PATCH INSTALLATION
Lay up the plies in the correct sequence
As plies are laid up use a resin roller or squeegee to remove entrapped air
(Trapped air will cause voiding if not removed)
Apply flash breaker tape or a release film around the repair site to facilitate
repair cleanup
Place a peel ply or perforated release film over the final ply
Caution
If the plies are being laid over honeycomb core, do not squeegee or roll
between plies as the resin will be forced out of the fabric into the core.
Resin starvation will result.
The patch is now ready for vacuum bagging

☻
PREPREG PATCHES
Ensure that the Prepreg has thawed

to room temperature before opening
the bag
Fabricate ply templates
Using the prepared templates cut
out the plies observing correct fibre
orientation
If required cut a layer of film
adhesive to the patch dimensions
☻
PRECURED PATCH INSTALLATION
Place pre-cut film adhesive over
repair site
Lay up the plies in the correct
sequence
Ensure that the release ply is
removed as each ply is laid up
Using a heat gun gently tack each
ply in position ,observing correct
ply orientation
Apply flash breaker tape or a
release film around the repair site
to facilitate repair cleanup
Place a peel ply or perforated
release film over the final ply
Patch is now ready for vacuum bagging

☻
FILLER PLY
A partial ply used to
stabilize or fill a local area.
Partial plies of a lay-up

which run up to, but not on
to a honeycomb sandwich
and used to thicken the
edge for countersunk
screws or bolts.
☻
PRECURED High
PATCH INSTALLATION
temperature cure
Place pre-cut film adhesive onto precured

patch
Place the patch in the correct position,
observing orientation requirements
Ensure that the release ply is removed
prior to patch installation
Using a heat gun gently tack the patch in
position
Apply flash breaker tape or a release film
around the repair site to facilitate repair
cleanup
Place a peel ply or perforated release film
over the final ply
Patch is now ready for vacuum bagging

☻
PRECURED Room
PATCH INSTALLATION
temperature cure
Brush paste adhesive onto precured patch

and onto repair surface to ensure
adequate adhesive wetting of both
surfaces
Place the patch in the correct position,
observing orientation requirements
Gently shimmy the patch to expel
entrapped air
Secure patch in position with flash
breaker tape
Apply flash breaker tape or a release film
around the repair site to facilitate repair
cleanup
Place a peel ply or perforated release film
Patch is now ready for vacuum bagging over the final ply
☻
COLD CURE
☻
HOT CURE
☻
VACUUM BAG
With the vacuum bagging film in

place the vacuum suction and gauge
ports can be installed.
Remove the white release paper

from the vacuum bag sealant tape.
☻
VACUUM BAGGING
Vacuum bagging a large job in a manufacturing environment
☻
VACUUM BAG LEAK TEST
Connect the vacuum pump or transducer, connect
the gauge and check the bag for leaks. Ensure that
the vacuum being drawn is at least 25“Hg as
indicated by the gauge.
A vacuum leak check is done to make sure

that the bag has sealed.
Depending on the manufacturers
instructions, an allowable drop may be one
to four inches of mercury.
☻
PREPARATION FOR CURE
On completion of the vacuum bag

leak test the repair can be readied
for the beginning of the cure cycle.
• Connect thermocouples to the

temperature controller
• Connect the power source if
heater blankets are being used
• Program the temperature
controller cure parameters
☻
TEMPERATURE CONTROL PROGRAMMING
Modern controllers are fully

programmable and will automatically
manage the entire cure process.
However there are still many older styles
of controllers on the market.
These can be partially automated or
require total manual control
Controllers should never be left completely unmonitored during a cure cycle,

especially during the ramp up phase of the cure cycle
☻
SINGLE STAGE CURE CYCLE
Step curing is used when a manually Ramp and soak curing is used when
operated controller is used fully automatic controllers are used
Multi stage curing can be used with either the manual or fully automatic
controllers and is dependant on cure requirements.
☻
MULTI STAGE CURE CYCLE
Multi stage curing can be used with either the manual or fully automatic
controllers.
☻
BOND DURABILITY
Surface preparation has minimal

effect on short term strength and
fatigue performance, but has a
significant effect on longer term
environmental durability.
Boeing wedge testing

☻
POST CURE INSPECTION
There are currently no methods of establishing the strength and durability of a
given composite repair without destroying the repair.
There are however methods of establishing that the cured resin matrix should
perform as designed. These are:
• Lap shear testing and
• Barcol hardness testing
Lap shear testing will establish whether a

given resin system has fully cured.
Barcol hardness testing is used to

establish whether a resin matrix has
achieved full strength.
☻
MEASURING EQUIPMENT
Lap shear testers

☻
Following repair, the adhesive layer is to be inspected for:

• voids,
• disbonding,
• cracking in the adhesive,
• poor adhesive flow and
• porosity.
A thorough visual inspection will detect many defects before resorting

to more sophisticated methods.
☻
Voiding and disbonding
Large voids and disbonds may be detected by tap hammer inspection. If disbonds
and or voiding is suspected but cannot be detected by tap hammer inspection
then ultrasonic inspection should be used.
Voiding and disbonding is not cause for immediate repair rejection.
If the voiding or disbonding is within pre-established limits, the repair is
considered acceptable.
☻
Cracking
Cracking in the adhesive bond is usually caused by thermal
shock due to excessive heat or rapid cooling.
Cracking is cause for immediate repair rejection.
☻
CORE SEPARATION
Core separation as seen in the image below is the separation of the cell wall from
the adhesive nodes. These defects can be very difficult to detect.
☻
DELAMINATION
Delamination is the separation of the layers of material in a laminate, either local
or covering a wide area.
Can occur during the cure process or in the composite’s subsequent life
☻
Adhesive flow
Inspect for the absence of adhesive flow
caused by adhesive flash produced during
the cure
Poor flow can be attributed to:
inadequate pressurisation,
too slow a heat up rate, or
adhesive which is out of useable life.
This condition will cause poor bond
durability and the repair must be rejected.
☻
Porosity
Porosity is difficult to detect using tap tests and ultrasonics.
The presence of a large number of small bubbles in the adhesive fillet line is
indicative of a porous bond.
Porosity is indicative of too rapid a heat-up rate, incorrect pressurisation or
moisture contamination of the adhesive or surfaces.
Bond durability will be adversely affected and any repair with this condition
should be rejected.
☻
VOID
Air or gas that has been trapped and

cured into a laminate.
Porosity is an aggregation of micro
voids.
Voids are essentially incapable of
transmitting structural stresses or
non- radiative energy fields.
Associated with bridging and resin
starved areas.
☻
CURE STRESS
A residual internal stress produced

during the curing cycle of composite
structures.
Normally, these stresses originate

when different components of a lay-
up have different thermal coefficients
of expansion.
☻
CURE STRESS
Stress induced by curing can be reduced by lowering temperature of cure cycle.
Great care must be taken when doing this. The potential risk is that adhesive will
not fully cure.
Many epoxy adhesives will fully cure if temperatures are held within a certain
range.
For example:
A 250°F(121°C) epoxy film adhesive will fully cure at 250°F if held at this
temperature for 1 hour, however same adhesive will fully cure at a temperature
of 225°F(107°C) if this temperature is maintained for 1.5 hours.
Drop temperature to 200°F(93°C) and it will take 6.0 hours to fully cure.
Go below 200°F and adhesive will never fully cure.
☻
RESIN RICHNESS
Localised area filled with resin and lacking reinforcing material.
☻
RESIN STARVATION
A localised area of insufficient resin, usually identified by low gloss, dry
spots or fibre showing on the surface.
☻
GALVANIC CORROSION
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two materials which are from different positions on
the galvanic scale come in direct contact with each other, and is aggravated by the
presence of moisture.
Dissimilar metal corrosion problems are well known.
However, carbon/graphite fibre composites also exhibit this galvanic effect with some
metals.
Carbon/graphite will be cathodic while more active metals such as aluminium, will
become anodic and will therefore corrode.
The corrosion occurs in the metal alone; the carbon/graphite fibre composite itself is
unaffected.
Aluminium is particularly affected by this form of galvanic corrosion.
☻
GALVANIC CORROSION CHART
Corrosion potential of various metals with respect to carbon/graphite fibres
METAL Corrosion potential (12= worst)
Magnesium 12
Zinc 11
Aluminium 7075 Clad 10
Aluminium 5052 9
Aluminium 6061-T6 9
Aluminium 7075-T6 9
Cadmium 8
Aluminium 2024-T4 7
Manganese bronze 3
Inconel 1
Stainless steel 0
Titanium 0
Monel 0
☻
GALVANIC CORROSION PREVENTION
Specific corrosion control techniques are employed when carbon fibre
advanced composite materials are used in aircraft components.
Sealant can also be applied to faying surfaces between the Glassfibre laminate and the
metallic surface to help prevent the initiation of galvanic corrosion.
☻
EROSION PROTECTION FOR COMPOSITE
REPAIRS
Glassfibre sacrificial laminates are quite often applied over composite repairs to
provide environmental and erosion protection.
These laminates can be co-cured with the repair or installed over the repair after
repair cure
These sacrificial laminates can be bonded with Epoxy film adhesives, two part epoxy
paste adhesives or with sealants.
As these laminates are sacrificial they are easily replaceable or repairable.
☻
EROSION AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
Primary protection for composite components comes from a well applied and
maintained surface finish of Polyurethane paint.
☻
EROSION PROTECTION
Aramid (Kevlar) can be used as an
erosion resistant sheathing or as
an integral structural component in
erosion prone areas.
The one disadvantage in using
Kevlar is its susceptibility to
moisture ingression. (hygroscopic)
Surface finishes must be kept
intact.
Blackhawk main rotor tip

cap manufactured from
aluminium and kevlar.
☻
EROSION PROTECTION
Composite structures that are subject

to high speed airflow can be protected
from the effects of erosion by installing
Titanium, Nickel or Stainless steel
abrasion strips.
Polyurethane tape can also be applied
to protect leading edges
☻
EROSION PROTECTION
Special coatings that are applied to
radomes must be durable and robust
enough to provide erosion and
moisture protection at the speeds and
altitudes that modern aircraft fly at.
They must also not affect radar
performance.
By applying a bondable Tedlar film to the internal faces of panels during

manufacture, a moisture barrier is created.
☻
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
Aircraft require electrical contact between
all metallic and composite parts in order to
prevent arcing or fibre damage.
Composites do not conduct electricity, so
lightning protection has to be built into the
composite.
If there is no lightning protection in the
composite and lightning exits through the
composite, the resin in the composites will
evaporate leaving bare cloth.
☻
There are several methods of dissipating the electrical charge on composite
structures:
• Imbedding wires in the composite
structure
• Imbedding a fine aluminium or copper
mesh onto the composite
• Bonding thin aluminium foil to the
outside of the composite
• Flame spraying aluminium onto the
surface of the composite
• Bonding metal into the composite to
provide a path to another metal
component or a static discharge wick
• Conductive adhesives when bonding is
required from composites to bonding
leads
☻
Lightning protection in aircraft

radomes is typically provided by
embedding wires into the
composite structure.
By this means any charge can be
safely conducted to the
surrounding metal structure.
☻
After conducting repairs to

any of the composite
lightning protection methods,
electrical continuity checks
must be carried out to verify
conductivity between the
repair and the surrounding
mesh/ wires etc.
Lightning mesh repair to Blackhawk

helicopter main rotor blade
☻
CONCLUSION
Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:
5.2.1 Describe basic composite terminology and explain their interaction in

typical composite structures .
5.2.2 Describe accepted practices for cutting, sanding or drilling of FRP composite
structure identifying the appropriate tool combinations for different FRP
materials and state special precautions and handling relating to their use .
5.2.3 Identify the advantages/ disadvantages of matrix/fibre combinations and
describe the methods of laminations of FRP materials
5.2.4 Describe hot and cold bonding methods and demonstrate metal to metal /
metal composite bonding .
5.2.5 Explain FRP repair schemes including associated curing methods
5.2.6 Identify applicable environmental conditions that apply to composite and non-
metallic materials structures and describe the methods of protection used
☻
This concludes Topic 5.2:
Aircraft Materials: Composite / Non-
Metallic
Your next topic is Topic 6 :

Welding, Brazing and Bonding

Topic 5.2 - Composites &amp; Non Metal

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

5.2.1 Describe basic composite terminology and explain their interaction in

Damage to matrix system such as

Boron crack repair

Clockwise warp clock (CW)

A repair warp clock can be fabricated from cardboard and is an invaluable

If however the structure and composition of the composite cannot be determined

• The number of plies

Fire damaged 777 engine cowl

Always use the appropriate P.P.E

Grit from grit blasting activities should always

Hygrometer - Temperature and

However it would be prohibitively expensive for most repair facilities to

There are several methods used for drying out wet

Negligible damage is damage that may be corrected by a simple procedure with no

Examples of negligible damage are:

THIS WOULD BE A CAREER LIMITING DECISION

have already been factored into repair

Step back repairs are generally not

Scarf repairs are a great deal easier

¼“ Pneumatic die grinder

“3M” Roloc disc

Kevlar and other composite

Controlled feed drill

Use drill stops to prevent substrate

Hole breakout can also be minimised by

Brad point drills produce quality holes in

Brad point drill (Carbide)

Uni Drills are a carbide combination drill/reamer style cutting

Always use a pilot with cutters

S shaped positive rake countersink

Cutting (Aramid) Kevlar

Use template guides when routing composites to

Small hand held routers should never be used free hand,

Suitable for routing:

Diamond cut bit

Herringbone router cutter

Tweezers. Used for removing backing materials

Flash breaker tape

Tongue depressors (Adhesive

Generation of a chemically active surface and additionally, in the case of metallic

The primary purpose of solvent

Solvent wiping is to continue until no trace of

The final solvent wipes are to be performed using a

Any contamination detected on the final wipes will

Performed by spraying, pouring or squirting distilled de-ionised water onto the

Water quality is critical to the surface preparation

The surface should be heated to

Hand abrasion is not the preferred

The propellant gas for grit blasting

Chemical modification processes will be detailed in the aircraft’s SRM.

Once surface prep is complete – apply adhesive and

The mixing of the two parts of an

Heat curing can be achieved by the use of a temperature controlling system in

Typical high temperature cure

“K” type are used with bonders of Australian

Care must be taken to prevent distortion

Heat blankets are made of flexible

The temperature cannot be accurately

As with shot bags mechanical clamping

Vacuum bagging is arguably the most

Vacuum fitting base plate

Whenever repairing a composite

This is to allow any stress which is

Topic 5.2 - Composites & Non Metal

Topic 5.2 - Composites & Non Metal