Dating Methods

and
Geological Time Scale
Two major types of dating methods are available-
Relative dating method- in this only the relative age

among the rocks or the sediments is determined. The

precise dates of rocks are very difficult to tell. It is very
easy and quick method.
Absolute dating method- here the near exact or precise

dates of the rocks can be determined. This involves

radioactive isotopes and detailed lab experiments.
Relative Dating Methods
1. Dendrochronology

Dendrochronology or tree-ring dating, is the scientific

method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree
rings, also known as growth rings. Dendrochronology
can date the time at which tree rings were formed, in
many types of wood, to the exact calendar year. In some
areas of the world, it is possible to date wood back a few
thousand years, or even many thousands.
 Growth rings, also referred
to as tree rings or annual
rings, can be seen in a
horizontal cross section cut
through the trunk of a tree.
One ring usually marks the
passage of one year in the
life of the tree.
2. Varve- A varve is an annual layer
of sediment or sedimentary rock.
Varves are amongst the smallest-scale
events recognized in stratigraphy. An
annual layer can be highly visible
because the particles washed into the
layer in the spring when there is greater
flow strength are much coarser than
those deposited later in the year. This
forms a pair of layers—one coarse and
one fine—for each annual cycle.
3. In Sedimentary Strata
Principle of superposition: In a sequence of
undeformed sedimentary rocks, the oldest beds are on
the bottom and the youngest are on the top.
Principle of cross-cutting relations: Geologic
features, such as faults, and igneous intrusions are
younger than the rocks they cut.
 Absolute Dating Methods
Principles of Radiometric Dating
Naturally-occurring radioactive materials break down into
other materials at known rates. This is known as radioactive
decay.
Many radioactive elements can be used as geologic clocks.
Each radioactive element decays at its own nearly constant
rate. Once this rate is known, geologists can estimate the
length of time over which decay has been occurring
by measuring the amount of radioactive parent element and
the amount of stable daughter elements.
 Example of a radioactive
decay chain from lead-212
(212Pb) to lead-208 (208Pb) .
Each parent nuclide
spontaneously decays into
a daughter nuclide
(the decay product) via
an α decay or a β− decay.
The final decay product,
lead-208 (208Pb), is stable
and can no longer
undergo spontaneous
radioactive decay.
Radioactive parent isotopes and their stable daughter products

Radioactive Parent Stable Daughter

Potassium 40 Argon 40

Rubidium 87 Strontium 87

Thorium 232 Lead 208

Uranium 235 Lead 207

Uranium 238 Lead 206

Carbon 14 Nitrogen 14
Radioactive decay occurs at a constant exponential or
geometric rate. The rate of decay is proportional to
the number of parent atoms present.
Each radioactive isotope has its own unique half-
life. A half-life is the time it takes for half of the
parent radioactive element to decay to a
daughter product.

Half life or,

0.693

λ= Decay Constant
 Half Lives for Common Radioactive Elements

Radioactive Parent Stable Daughter Half life

Potassium 40 Argon 40 1.25 billion yrs

Rubidium 87 Strontium 87 48.8 billion yrs

Thorium 232 Lead 208 14 billion years

Samarium 147 Neodymium 143 106 billion years

Uranium 235 Lead 207 704 million years

Uranium 238 Lead 206 4.47 billion years

Carbon 14 Nitrogen 14 5730 years

 There are three types of subatomic particles involved:
 Alpha particles
large, easily stopped by paper
charge = +2
mass = 4
 Beta particles
penetrate hundreds of times farther than alpha particles, but easily stopped
compared with neutrons and gamma rays.
charge = -1
mass = negligible

 Neutrons
highly penetrating
no charge
mass = 1

 Gamma rays (high energy X-rays) are also produced. Highly penetrating
electromagnetic radiation. Photons (light).
No charge or mass.
Can penetrate concrete. Lead shield can be used.
 The mathematical expression that relates radioactive decay to
geologic time is :-

D = D0 + N(t) (eλt − 1)
where,
t is age of the sample,
D is number of atoms of the daughter isotope in the sample,
D0 is number of atoms of the daughter isotope in the original
composition,
N is number of atoms of the parent isotope in the sample at
time t (i.e. at present), given by N(t) = Noe-λt,
and λ is the decay constant of the parent isotope, equal to the
inverse of the radioactive half-life of the parent isotope times
the natural logarithm of 2.
 Radiocarbon Dating Method
Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon, with a half-

life of 5,730 years, which is very short compared to the

other radio isotopes. Carbon-14, though, is continuously
created through collisions of neutrons generated by cosmic
rays with nitrogen in the upper atmosphere and thus
remains at a near-constant level on Earth. The carbon-14
ends up as a trace component in atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2).
• An organism acquires carbon during its lifetime. Plants
acquire it through photosynthesis, and animals acquire it
from consumption of plants and other animals. When an
organism dies, it ceases to take in new carbon-14, and the
existing isotope decays with a characteristic half-life (5730
years). The proportion of carbon-14 left when the remains of
the organism are examined provides an indication of the time
elapsed since its death. The carbon-14 dating limit lies around
58,000 to 62,000 years.
Geological Time Scale
Time/Period/Age Major Events

Carboniferous First reptiles and coal forests. Highest ever

atmospheric oxygen levels.
Devonian First seed-bearing plants, first trees and first
(wingless) insects. First amphibians (aquatic).
Silurian First Vascular plants, first jawed fishes.
Ordovician First green plants and fungi on land.

Cambrian First major diversification of life.

Archean Simple single-celled life (probably bacteria).

First Stromatolites.
Hadean/Priscoan Oldest known rock (4030 Ma). Oldest
known mineral (Zircon, 4404 ± 8 Ma). Formation
of Moon(4533 Ma).
Time/Period/Age Major Events
Oligocene Rapid evolution and diversification of fauna, especially mammals.
Major evolution and dispersal of modern types of flowering plants.

Eocene Appearance of several "modern" mammal families.

Paleocene Modern plants appear; Indian Subcontinent collides with Asia 55 Ma,
Himalayan Orogeny starts between 52 and 48 Ma.

Cretaceous Break up of Gondwana. Large Volcanic eruption in the end and

complete extinction of dinosaurs.

Jurassic Many types of dinosaurs, such as sauropods and stegosaurs. First

birds and lizards. Breakup of Pangaea into Gondwana and Laurasia.

Triassic Archosaurs dominant on land as dinosaurs, First mammals and

crocodilia appear.

Permian Landmasses unite into supercontinent Pangaea. 95% of life on Earth

becomes extinct.
Time/Period/Age Major Events

Holocene (Recent) Quaternary Ice Age recedes, and the

current interglacial begins; rise of
human civilization. Sahara forms from savannah,
and agriculture begins. Stone Age cultures give way
to Bronze Age (3300 BC) and Iron Age (1200 BC), giving rise
to many pre-historic cultures throughout the world.
Pleistocene Flourishing and then extinction of many large mammals
(e.g. Mammoth). Evolution of anatomically
modern humans. Ice age begins.
Pliocene Cool and dry climate. Homo habilis appears.
Miocene Horses diverse. First apes appear.