perception

Perception
⚫ “…a constructive process by which we go beyond
the stimuli that are presented to us and attempt to
construct a meaningful situation”.
Perception is a process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to
their environment.
 Perception could be explained in various ways.
1. It is the process of receiving information about and
making sense of the world around people.
2. It is also the process of deciding which information to
notice, how to categorize the noticed information, and
how to interpret it within the framework of one’s existing
knowledge.
3. In simple terms, perception is how one looks at the
world
Factors that influence perception
Individuals look at the same thing yet, perceive it
differently. A number of factors operate to shape and
sometimes distort perception. The factors can reside in
the perceiver, in the object or target being perceived
and in the context of the situation in which the
perception is made.
Factors in the Perceiver: − Attitudes − Motives −
Interests − Experience − Expectations.
Factors in the Situation:− Time − Work setting −
Social setting .
Factors in the Target: − Motion − Sounds − Size −
Background − Proximity − Similarity
Perception-Key Concepts
1. Selection
2. Organization
3. Interpretation
4. Subliminal perception and
ESP
Perceptual Processing
⚫ Top-down: perception is guided by higher-level
knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations

⚫ Bottom-up: perception that consists of recognizing

and processing information about the individual
components of the stimuli
2. Organization
⚫ Form (Gestalt)
⚫ Constancy(size, shape, color, brightness)
⚫ Depth
⚫ Color
Gestalt Principles
The Gestalt Principles
“In the Gestalt theory of perception this is known
as the figure/ground relationship. This theory
asserts, in brief, that no figure is ever perceived
except in relation to a background.”
What is Gestalt?
One of the bright minds of gestaltism, Kurt Koffka, made the famous
statement

“The whole is greater than the

sum of its parts.”

(what this actually means is the whole exists independently

from the component parts.)

But what does that mean?

Gestalt
Gestalt is a psychology term which means “unified whole”.
It refers to theories of visual perception developed by German
psychologists in the 1920s.

These theories attempt to describe how people tend to organize visual

elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are
applied.
Principles of Perceptual Organization
Max W (1923/1938) found that the basic gestalt principle
remained true in various intellectual and sensory
domains.
Whatever we do, we perceive our world in unified
wholes and the organization is already given in the
experience.
 Gestalt psychologists articulated some principles that
govern the basic organization of perceptual wholes.
These were also called as the principles of primitive
organization due to the understanding that they were
native and natural.
Some of the important principles are as follows:
Principle of Similarity
The principle states that the elements that are similar
to each other in any way (color, orientation, size etc.)
tend to be perceived as a unified group.
two separate groups based on shape can be seen– the
circles with coloured and uncoloured.
 Similarity - Anomaly
The green shape on the right becomes a focal point because it is dissimilar to the
other shapes. This is an anomaly - when an element is emphasized because it is
dissimilar, breaking the pattern of similarity.
Similarity
The similarity between different elements can be shape, color, size, texture or value.

The more commonality that individual elements have, the greater the sense of
coherence, thanks to similarity.

The Beatles’ album cover uses both similarity and anomaly.

Similarity
Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another.

People often perceive them as a group or pattern.

This effect can be used to create a single illustration, image or message from a
series of separate elements.

When similarity occurs, an object can be emphasized if it is dissimilar to the

others. This is called anomaly.
Similarity

There can be similarity of shape, color, alignment, size, other possibilities (value,
tone, or think of some of your own) or a combination
Principle of proximity

 Elements that are close together either in time or

space are perceived as a unified group.
 we see two pairs of vertical dots rather than group of
dots.
Proximity (also known as
grouping)
Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together. It is when the close arrangement of
elements creates a group association between those objects.

If individual elements are also similar, they will tend to be perceived as a single whole, even
though they are separate elements.

When the squares are given close proximity, unity occurs.

While they continue to be separate shapes, they are now perceived as one group.
Principle of closure
Principle of closure: The principle states that, if there
are certain parts that are missing or left out in the
perceptual object, we tend to complete it
psychologically, thereby filling the gaps.
 we see a circle , square, triangle instead of
disconnected lines.
Closure
Closure is a common design technique that uses the human eye’s tendency to see
closed shapes.

Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If

enough of the shape is indicated, people will see the whole by filling in the missing
information.

This technique is often associated with stenciled artwork, but is also closely associated
with logo forms.

Gestalt
Principles
Proximity
This item is seen as a whole (tree) due to the proximity of the shapes (people)

Gestalt
Principles
Principle of continuity
The objects that have a continuity with each other are
perceived to be flowing in the same direction and are
perceived as a figure.
It is also known as principle of good continuation
(Field et al. 1993).
We tend to follow the contours whenever the elements
of a pattern imply a direction.
Continuation
Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move through one object and continue to
another object, preferring to see a single continuous figure than separate lines. We tend to
perceive the simplest path, rather than a complex path.

This can be used to point toward another element in the composition, and is seen where a line
is cut through one object, often in a curve, aligning perfectly with a secondary element.

This is actually 4 separate

lines that meet at a central
point. We prefer to see 2
intersecting lines rather
than 4.
Continuation

Continuation occurs
because your eye
will follow the lines
of the bee’s path, as
your eye tends to
naturally follow a
line or curve.
Principle of figure and ground
 It asserted that information is not organized
perceptually alone, some contrast is also required to
gather knowledge from the data.
Edgar Rubin (1886-1951) explained that the element
that stands out is the figure.
 Other thing that seems to retreat in the background
is called as ground.
It basically argues that it is vital to recognize figure
from its ground.
A major characteristic of figure is that it is distinct in
comparison to the ground which is vague and
indistinct.
The eye differentiates an object from its surrounding
area.

Figure/Ground often uses the idea of light and shade to

help create an images that jumps out of a series of shapes.
Figure/Ground
The eye differentiates an object from its surrounding area.

Figure/Ground often uses the idea of light and shade to help create an images that jumps
out of a series of shapes.

A form, silhouette, or shape is naturally perceived as figure (object), while the

surrounding area is perceived as ground (background). Remind you of
positive/negative?
Figure/Ground
This principle describes the eye’s tendency to see and separate objects from their
surrounding background.

It works because human eyes want to see the figure (foreground object) and background
(ground) as two different planes of focus.

Everything that is not figure is considered ground, which can be used to create some
interesting visual effects and tricks, particularly when the designer or artist introduces
deliberate ambiguity.
 Figure/Ground
In this image, the figure and ground relationships change as the eye perceives the form of
two dogs or the Seattle Needle.
Figure/Ground
This image uses complex figure/ground relationships which change upon seeing the white bird or
the black bird. We also see the yin/yang.
Perceptual Constancy

This refers to stableness in perception. We have a

tendency to perceive the objects as relatively stable and
unchanging in shape and size, in spite of a change in the
image that we receive.
For example, when we see a person from 5′ distance, the
size of the image in our eyes differs from the image of the
same person from 100′ distance.
Even then we perceive him as the same person. When we
see people and houses from the top of hill, the images will
be very small. But we do not get confused by this. We
perceive them correctly according to their actual size.
Perceptual constancy depends upon several factors like
past experience, expectancy, habits, motivations, cognitive
styles, learning, imagination, etc.
Types of perceptual constancy
Depth Perception: Ability of a person to perceive the distance is known
as depth perception.
 This is very important ability to judge the distance between us and
other people, objects and vehicles moving particularly when we are on
roads.
This is also known as third dimension.
Cues: Depth perception is possible due to certain cues. These cues help
us to understand the distance between one person and the other
person or object. These are of two types:
a. Monocular cues:
These are the cues that can operate when only one eye is looking. Some
of such cues are:
1. Linear perspective:
The distances separating the images of far objects appear to be smaller.
For example, imagine that you are standing between railway tracks and
looking off into the distance. It appears that the tracks would seem to
run closer and closer together at the other end.
2. Aerial perspective: The nearer objects appear clearer
than the distant objects. For example, a hill in far of
distance appears farther away because the details do
not seem clearly.
3. Interposition: When one object obstructs our view
of another, the front one appears nearer than the
partly covered one. For example hill which appears full
is definitely nearer than the partly seen.
Gradient structure
A gradient is a continuous change in something- a
change without abrupt transitions.
Usually the regions closer to the observer have a coarse
texture and many details.
As the distance increases, the texture becomes finer
and finer.
This happens very gradually and gives a cue about the
depth or distance.
b. Binocular cues:
Sometimes the depth can be perceived when both eyes
are used. This is called binocular cue. There are 2
binocular cues:
1. Retinal disparity:
The image of the object which falls on both the retinas
differs. Disparity will be more when the object is closer
than when it is far away. Depending upon the
correspondence between the distance and the amount
of disparity, the depth can be perceived.
2. Convergence or divergence of eyeballs:
When the object moves nearer and nearer to our eyes,
our eyeballs converge, and as the object moves away
from us the eyeballs diverge. This process acts as a
binocular cue to perceive the depth.
3. Four Major Factors of Interpretation
⚫ Perceptual adaptation: Perceptual adaptation is the process by
which we take in sensory information and pair it with previous
memories to perceive the world around us.
⚫ Perceptual set: A perceptual set is basically a tendency to view things
only in a certain way. Perceptual sets can impact how we interpret and
respond to the world around us and can be influenced by a number of
different factors.
⚫ Individual motivation: The term motivated perception refers to the
process by which people's active desires, needs, and motivations
shape their perceptual experiences (Balcetis & Dunning, 2006;
Dunning & Balcetis, 2013; see also Bruner, 1957).
⚫ Frame of reference: : When you are standing on the ground, that is your
frame of reference. Anything that you see, watch, or measure will be compared
to the reference point of the ground. If I am standing in the back of a moving
truck, the truck is now my frame of reference and everything will be measured
compared to it.
 Subliminal Perception
⚫ Stimuli that occur below the threshold of our conscious awareness
but have a weak, if any effect on behavior.
⚫ Subliminal perception is the perception of a series of stimulus
which the person is not consciously aware of and gets under the
influence involuntarily, in addition to the perception with the five
sense organs.
⚫ The meaning of the term subliminal perception has been changing
over time. Some prefer to use perception without consciousness as an
alternative that ignores the controversial issue of limen, i.e.,
threshold. Due to the effects on thoughts, actions, or feelings, it is
relatively easy to measure experimentally; the difficult part about it is
the evaluation of awareness of stimuli below the threshold of the
subject.
⚫ The nature of the threshold is important for identifying the existence
of subliminal perception since a stimulus is only subliminal when it is
below the threshold of consciousness.
Essentially, subliminal messaging is a way to communicate a
specific idea in such a way that bypasses your “mental radar,”
aiming directly at your subconscious mind. In simplest terms, it’s
an attempt to embed an idea in your mind without you even
realizing it.
When it comes to advertising, subliminal messaging occurs when
an advertiser tries to use images or sounds to influence the
audience without viewers being aware of it. Ultimately, the goal is
for the audience to walk away with a certain message in their
mind – for example, the desire to visit a new coffee shop in town.
1. Amazon
It’s no secret that e-retailer Amazon has achieved success on a
massive level, but what you might not know about the company
is that they use subliminal messaging in their famous logo.
Most people don’t look twice at the smile-like line at the
bottom of the Amazon logo, assuming it’s just a generic curve
or arrow. But if you pay attention to the direction of the line,
you’ll see that it starts at the “A” and ends at the “z,” subtly
communicating that the retailer sells everything, from A to Z.
2. FedEx
FedEx is an international delivery provider with a history
that goes back 100-plus years, but the Georgia-based
company is also a master of subliminal advertising.
You’ve probably seen their logo hundreds of times, from
their delivery trucks to the boxes dropped off at your front
door. But have you ever really looked at the FedEx logo?
Most kids can tell you that Baskin Robbins is the ice cream
shop where you can choose from 31 tasty flavors. And
actually, the company puts that delicious detail right in their
logo as well.
The “BR” included at the top of the company’s logo is a
combination of pink and blue lettering. If you just look at
the pink portion, you’ll see that it clearly says “31” – their
marketing team definitely deserves a double scoop for that
one!
Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
Is there any way of knowing about the world in which
the information does not come through the senses?
Some people believe that is possible.
 But there are some instances reported by people that
they have experienced some perceptions without the
aid of their sense organs. Psychologists have named
the perception that occurs without sensory
stimulation as ‘Extrasensory perception’ (ESP).
This is otherwise known as sixth sense in common
man’s view. Some of the common phenomena in ESP
are clairvoyance, telepathy, meeting the souls,
precognition, psycho-kinesis, reincarnation, etc
 Illusions
Illusions are special perceptual experiences in which
information arising from “real” external stimuli leads
to an incorrect perception, or false impression, of the
object or event from which the stimulation comes.
 illusion is defined as a process involving an
interaction of logical and empirical
considerations. Common usage suggests that an
illusion is a discrepancy between one's awareness and
some stimulus.
something that deceives by producing a false or
misleading impression of reality
Causes of illusion

1. Similarity: it indicates that two objects that appear to

be equal in size and shape may be subject to higher
degree of illusion. For instance, a long leaf as a lizard
on the floor.
2. Expectancy: it refers to the phenomena that when we
are expecting something then everything seems to be
fall similar to the expectant object. For example, while
waiting for an empty auto rickshaw, all autos at a
distant appear to be empty.
Another example would be that, while searching for your
lost jewellery all other glittering objects will be
mistaken for the one which you are searching.
3. Subjective factor: Sometimes our habits and
familiarity towards objects can cause illusion.
For example cross two fingers of your hand, try and feel a
marble with the crossed fingers you may see to feel one
marble as separated into two
TYPES OF ILLUSION
As discussed earlier illusion is a distortion of a
sensory perception.
Illusions are subjective in nature, as individual
differences may persist which leads them to experience
illusion differently.
 Human senses can be deceived by illusions, but visual
illusions are the most well known among them.
There are several different kinds of illusions. Here are
some really interesting types of illusion.
1. PONZO ILLUSION
The first type of illusion is the Ponzo illusion.
This type of illusion describes the closeness of the
objects with the increase in distance.
 As the objects fade from the starting distance they
tend to merge at the horizon and appear more closer.
This can be well illustrated in railway track.
As we move are eyes on the railway track, the two
parallel tracks seem to converge at end and also appear
closer from the starting point.
At times the length of one track where person is
standing may seem to exceed than the other, but in
reality both the tracks are equal in length and
equidistant also.
2. ZOLLNER’S ILLUSION
The second type of illusion is the Zollner’s illusion.
 It states the influence of figure ground relationship in
interpretation of the image by the brain.
The abstract background of the figure tends to create
uneasiness if eye contact is increased.
4. MOON ILLUSION
This type of illusion is an example of optical illusion
and is also refereed at times as ‘the moon effect’.
 In this type of illusion, the angular size of the moon is
viewed at times to be twice more when near the
horizon than high in the sky.
Moon at a height appears to be small whereas moon
somewhere down appears to be a big huge object in
the visual field.
3. MULLER-LYER ILLUSION
It was first discovered in 1889 by F.C. Müller-Lyer.
 The perceptual error has then been gaining
prominence and has been well investigated by various
theorists.
He proposed that error occure due to the difference
between the length of the line and the length of the
figure.
The length of the entire figure increases as a result of
outward fins in comparison to entire length of the
figure with inward fins, having the length of the line as
same.
Illusion of motion
The term illusory motion, also known as motion
illusion, is an optical illusion in which a static
image appears to be moving due to the cognitive
effects of interacting colour contrasts, object
shapes, and position.