Levels of linguistic analysis:

Group # 3
Lexico-Semantics
Qurat-ul-ain
Ambreen
Kalsoom
Noor Fatima Zulfiqar
Noor Fatima Shabbir
Hamna
Savera Waheed
 Semantics
• The branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. The two main areas are logical semantics,
concerned with matters such as sense and reference and presupposition and implication, and lexical
semantics, concerned with the analysis of word meanings and relations between them.
• Simply put, this level is focused on word and sentence meaning. Depending on the speaker’s or writer’s
intention, words may be used to produce denotative, connotative, collocative, affective, thematic, or
stylistic meanings at the semantic level. We can identify the context of a text, its genre, its
communicative purposes, its author, and other details by noticing certain distinctive word choices. It’s
common to refer to this level as “stylistic meaning.”
• Example:
• The writer has penned down his ideas with extreme brevity.
• I see squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness….(Shakespeare)
• This is the study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences.
• • Semantics is the philosophical and scientific study of meaning.
• It can be said to be a branch of linguistics which is pre- occupied with the study of meaning.
• Subfields of semantics are lexical semantics, and structural Semantics.
• Semantics helps us to understand the nature of language because it accounts for the abnormalities experienced
when reading English sentences such as:
• “The chicken ate the man”
• “My cat read English”, and
• “A dress was walking to the door”.
• The abnormality in each of the sentences above is not noticed in its syntax because it adheres to the same basic
syntactic rule such as:
• The Plate Kicked The man
• NP. V NP
• Subject predicator object
• Words fulfil certain roles within the situation described by the sentence. These have been identified as Agents
(subject), theme (object) and instrument (predicator). Further functions of noun phrases in a sentence include:
experiencer, location, source, and goal, among others.
 LEXICO SEMANTICS

Definitions:
1. The scientific study of the meanings of words and the
systematic meaning –related connections between words is
known as Lexical Semantics.
2. The branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of
words is called lexical semantics.
 Examples
1. Let's take an example from Shakespeare's play "Hamlet”. In the famous soliloquy from Act 3, Scene
1, Hamlet contemplates the nature of life and death, using powerful lexico-semantics to convey his
inner turmoil:
"To be, or not to be—that is the question:
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them.

2. (Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness"):

Lexically, "heart of darkness" may suggest a physical location. Semantically, it carries profound
symbolism, representing the dark and corrupt aspects of human nature explored in the novel, as well as
the colonial exploitation in Africa.
PRINCIPAL GOAL OF LEXICAL SEMANTICS

The principal goal of lexical semantics is to build a model for the

structure of the lexicon by categorizing the types of relationship
between words.

1. Angry, Sad, Exuberant, Depressed, Afraid.

2. Cup, mugs, wines glass, plastic cup, Goblet, Tumbler.
 Lexical Relations

Lexical relations are the ways in which words are related

to each other in a language. Lexical relations are used to
analyze the meanings of words based on their
relationships with one another. In fact, they are one of
the ways of understanding the meaning of words.
 Types of Lexical Relations
• Synonymy
• Antonymy
• Hyponymy
• Prototypes
• Polysemy
• Metonymy
 Synonymy

• Synonymy' is the relation between two or more words that have a

very close meaning. Words with the same meaning often can be
substituted for each other in sentences. However, there are some
cases in which a synonym of a word would be odd and cannot be
used in a sentence. Note that synonymy does not mean total
sameness; To replace a word with its synonym, you must consider
many factors, including context and the relationships between
words. Synonymy can be found in all parts of speech including
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.
 Examples of Synonymy
The party was terrible. • "Mr. Darcy was most
disagreeably arrogant. His
= the party was awful.
haughty manner and
contemptuous air set him apart
She has a big house. from the amiable gentlemen in
= she has a large house. the room. Elizabeth observed
his proud demeanor, and
though she admired his
It was a difficult exam. handsome countenance, she
= It was a hard exam. could not overlook his
overbearing and disdainful
conduct."
 Antonymy
• Antonymy is the relation between words with opposite meanings. Antonyms are
usually in pairs and can be found across all parts of speech. Here are some
examples:

• Adjective: hot ≠ cold

• Noun: freedom ≠ slavery

• Verb: like ≠ dislike

• Adverb: never ≠ always

• Preposition: on ≠ off
 Example of Antonymy

• It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was

the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was
the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was
the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was
the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.
 Hyponymy

Hyponymy happens when the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of
another in some type of hierarchical relationship. It can be found in verbs,
adjectives, and nouns. There are three major terms used in hyponymy: 'hypernym'
which refers to a general term, 'hyponym' which refers to a more specific term, and
'co-hyponyms' which refer to the hyponyms of the same level.

Examples
• Green, white and blue are the hyponyms of 'color'.
• Here, 'color' is the hypernym of green, white and blue. Green, white and blue are
co-hyponyms of each other.
• Cat, dog, and horse are the hyponyms of 'animal'.
 Example of Hyponymy

• "Frodo gazed in wonder at this marvellous gift that he had

so often heard of in old lore: elf-medicine, it was called,
and it was more strengthening than any food, and more
healing than any medicine. With that came the realization
that he was looking indeed into the heart of an enemy and
a dark and evil one. He wondered if he would ever see
them again; and yet, in the end, he did not trouble greatly
about them."
 Prototype
• A member or a set of members of a group that best represents the group as a
whole is called a 'prototype'. An example of a group that is easily recognized
by people is a prototype.

Examples:

• Chair is the prototype of 'furniture'.

• Robin is the prototype of 'bird'.

 Examples of Prototype

• "Atticus, a soft-spoken and principled man, exemplified the

true meaning of a gentleman. He was courteous to
everyone, stood firm in his beliefs, and treated even the most
challenging situations with dignity."
 Polysemy

Polysemy happens when a word has more than one meaning and all its
meanings are listed under one entry in a dictionary.

Examples

• Mouth (noun) → mouth of a river, mouth of an animal, mouth of a cave.

• Light (adjective): color, not heavy, not serious.

 Examples of Polysemy

"To be or not to be: that is the question:

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them. To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause."
 Metonymy

• Metonymy is a relation between words in which a word or phrase is used to

represent something else that is related to it, often through contiguity or association.
In metonymy, the word or phrase being used is not meant to be taken literally, but
rather as a symbol or representation of something else.

Examples:

• I swear to the crown. → 'Crown' is a metonym for 'king' and 'queen'.

• I drank the whole bottle. → 'Bottle' is a metonym for 'water/liquid'.

 Examples of Metonymy
• "He went to the window, sat down on the sill, the slanting rays of the setting
sun playing on his face, and for a long time he sat like that in profound thought.
He had become so completely absorbed in himself, and isolated from his fellows
that he dreaded meeting, not only his landlady, but anyone at all. He was crushed
by poverty, but the anxieties of his position had of late ceased to weigh upon him.
He had given up attending to matters of practical importance; he had lost all
desire to do so. Nothing that any landlady could do had a real terror for him. But
to be stopped on the stairs, to be forced to listen to her trivial, irrelevant gossip,
to pestering demands for payment, threats and complaints, and to rack his brains
for excuses, to prevaricate, to lie—no, rather than that, he would creep down the
stairs like a cat and slip out unseen."
 Types of words
•Noun :-
Words that represent people, places,things or ideas.
• Example:-
In Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice,” the word “estate” is a noun. Mr. Darcy’s grand estate, Pemberley, plays a significant role in the story,
symbolizing wealth and social status.
•Verb :-
Verb that denote actions, processs and States.
• Example:-
In J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter” series, the characters often “explore” the magical world around them, fostering a sense of curiosity and
adventure throughout the narrative.
•Adjective:-
Word that describe or modify noun, indicating qualities or characteristics.
• Example :-
Charles Dickens’ “A Tale of Two Cities.” In the opening lines of the novel, Dickens uses adjectives to contrast the conditions of the time:
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it
was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of
despair.”
Here, the adjectives “best,” “worst,” “wisdom,” “foolishness,” “belief,” and “incredulity” create a powerful dichotomy, emphasizing the
stark contrasts in the society depicted. Dickens skillfully uses adjectives to set the stage for the overarching themes and conflicts in the
novel.
• Adverb:-
words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, often indicating manner, time, place, or degree.
• Example:-
In Charlotte Brontë’s “Jane Eyre,” Mr. Rochester speaks to Jane with an adverbial intensity, revealing his feelings for her in a manner that surprises and captivates
both the character and the reader.
• Prepositions:-
Words that show the relationship between nouns and other elements in a sentence.
• Example:-
In Sylvia Plath’s “The Bell Jar,” “Esther Greenwood finds herself in a world that is at odds with her aspirations”. The preposition “at” highlights the tension she
feels, suggesting a clash between her own desires and the external forces shaping her life, contributing to the novel’s exploration of identity and societal
expectations.

• Conjunctions:-
Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses.
• Example:-
In J.R.R. Tolkien’s “The Hobbit,” “Bilbo Baggins is a hesitant and unadventurous hobbit, but he joins the company of dwarves on a quest for treasure, discovering
courage and resourcefulness within himself”. The conjunction “but” underscores the contrast between Bilbo’s initial reluctance and the unexpected heroism that
emerges as he faces the challenges of the journey.
Determiners:-
Words that introduce nouns and help specify them, such as articles (a, an, the) and demonstratives (this, that).
Example:-
In William Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” the ghost of King Hamlet appears”, and the determinant “the” in “the ghost” underscores the specific and crucial nature of
this supernatural entity, setting the stage for the unfolding tragedy in the play.
• Pronouns:-
Words that substitute for nouns, representing them in a sentence.
• Example:-
In J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter” series, “Hermione Granger often takes the lead in solving magical mysteries”. The pronoun
“she” is used to describe Hermione, emphasizing her intelligence, resourcefulness, and crucial role in supporting Harry
and Ron throughout their adventures at Hogwarts.
• Interjections:-
Words or phrases used to express strong emotions or sudden exclamations.
• Example:-
In William Shakespeare’s “Othello,” the character Othello exclaims, “O, beware, my lord, of jealousy!” The interjection “O”
adds a dramatic and emotional emphasis, conveying the urgency of the warning about the destructive nature of jealousy.
• Particles:-
Words that do not fit neatly into other categories, often serving grammatical functions.
Example:-
In Louisa May Alcott’s “Little Women,” when Jo March expresses her desire to be a successful writer, she exclaims, “I want
to do something splendid... Something heroic or wonderful that won’t be forgotten after I’m dead.” The particle “I want”
conveys Jo’s passionate aspirations and highlights her determination to leave a lasting impact through her creative
pursuits.
Connotation and Denotation
_Literal and non literal framing of a term or sign
_“Users of a language cannot have a knowledge or thought of
the objects or phenomena of the real world around them unless
this knowledge is ultimately embodied in words which have
essentially the same meaning for all speakers of that language”
(Ginzburg et alii ) the denotational component is actually what
makes communication possible.
_Connotation is the second component of lexical meaning which
is related to the emotive charge and the stylistic value of a word
 Denotative meaning
• The word denotation comes from
the Latin word “denotationem”
meaning to note or make a note .
Its contemporary definition is the
literal meaning of a word as one
would find in dictionary
• It is the objective meaning of a
word , one would find in dictionary
and most widely agreed upon by
scholars not based on personal
experience
• Stable and invariable
• Denotation is the strict dictionary
meaning of a word.
Connotative meaning
• The term connotation comes from Latin
word “ connotaionem” meaning to signify
in addition to the main meaning. Simply
the connotation of a word is an
underlying emotion or feeling associated
with that word that is not noted in the
literal definition of the term . The usage
of the word shapes its connotation
• Connotation is the subjective meaning of
a word
• Unstable and variable according to
person , social group , age ,etc.
• Connotation is the emotional and
imaginative association surrounding a
word.
• Connotation can be positive , negative
and neutral

1. if you look up the word snake in its
denotative sense you will discover
"any of numerous scaly, legless,
sometimes venomous reptiles having a
long, tapering, cylindrical body and
found in most
tropical and temperate regions” .
The connotations for the word snake could
include evil or danger.
Examples
Fungus is a scientific term
denoting a certain kind of
natural growth, but the word
also has
certain connotations of
disease and ugliness.
In Shakespeare's "Macbeth,"
the line "Out, out, brief
candle!" has a denotative
meaning of extinguishing a
candle. However, the
connotative meaning carries
the weight of the brevity and
fragility of life, emphasizing
the transience of human
existence.
Continue with some more examples
…
Language meaning is continually shifting, is always contextual, and is influenced by historical,
cultural, and economic factors. For instance, terms that were used years ago such as gangster and
thug denoted (that is, specifically referred to or explicitly meant) individuals involved in
criminal activities, who were prone to violence, and who had general disregard for laws and
social order.
Also, particularly during the Depression era, gangsters and thugs were associated
with male immigrants from Italy, Ireland, and other European countries.
However, today’s gangsters and thugs are associated with African-American males, and the terms are used to connote (that is, suggest or
imply) that these individuals are concerned with accumulating
material wealth, are hyper-sexual, and are threats to middle-class suburban folks. The terms also
suggest a particular urban ethic and a particular cultural cachet that far transcend the original
suggestion of criminal activity. Just think of the category of “gangster rap,” a musical genre that practitioners have argued captures the “truth”
of the black, urban male experience. The terms
thug and gangster have also become prevalent all across youth culture, designating clothing
styles, postures, attitudes, values, etc. and spawning a vast array of related terms. Much has
changed since the 30s, and these changes are reflected in language as demonstrated by the above
example.
• House vs. home
• kill vs murder
• religion vs faith
• freedom fighter ,mercenary ,soldier , terrorist
 Examples of positive, negative and neutral
connotations
For another example of connotations, consider the following:
negative There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.
neutral There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.
positive There are over 2,000 homeless in the city.

All three of these expressions refer to exactly the same people, but they will invoke different
associations in the reader's mind: a "vagrant" is a public nuisance while a "homeless" person is a
worthy object of pity and charity. Presumably, someone writing an editorial in support of a new
shelter would use the positive form, while someone writing an editorial in support of anti-
loitering laws would use the negative form.
In this case, the dry legal expression "with no fixed address" quite deliberately avoids most of
the positive or negative associations of the other two terms -- a legal specialist will try to avoid
connotative language altogether when writing legislation, use words that relatively free of strong emotional associations.

Since the 1950's, words like "Negro" and "crippled" have acquired strong negative connotations, and have been replaced either by words
with neutral connotations (i.e. "black," "handicapped") or by words with deliberately positive connotations ( i.e. "African-Canadian,"
"differently-abled").

For example, both "woman" and "chick" have the denotation "adult female" in North American
society, but "chick" has somewhat negative connotations, while "woman" is neutral.
Activity ..

Which word in each pair below has the more favorable

connotation to you?

o thrifty-penny-pinching
o pushy-aggressive
o politician-statesman
o chef-cook
o slender-skinny
 Idiomatic expressions in language often convey meanings
that go beyond the literal interpretation of individual words
Idiom in literature can lead to interesting and unusual uses of
language.
There are tens of thousands of idioms in the English
language and just as many in other languages; many people
never learn all of them. William Shakespeare himself is
Idiomatic meanings credited with inventing over 2,000 idioms that are now part
of everyday speech.
 Spill the beans (Tell your secrets)
 Kill two birds with one stone (Accomplish several tasks at
once)
 Break a leg (Good luck!)
 It’s a piece of cake! (It’s very easy.)
 He’s under the weather. (He’s sick.)
 I’m just pulling your leg. (I’m only joking.)
 Pass the buck. (Pass one’s responsibilities on to someone
else.)
Idiomatic meanings in
stylistic

In the context of stylistic, idiomatic meanings refer to expressions or phrases that carry a
figurative or non-literal meaning, often specific to a particular language or culture. These
expressions may not be easily understood by interpreting the individual words in isolation.
Instead, their meaning is derived from the overall context and cultural nuances.
They add a stylistic flair and cultural nuance to communication, making it more colorful and
expressive. Understanding idioms can enhance your language skills and help you navigate the
subtleties of communication using a culturally accepted idiom to convey the idea of someone
passing away.
. Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales
He at the last appointed him on one,
And let all others from his hearte gon,
And chose her of his own authority;
For love is blind all day, and may not see.
Writers from Plato to Shakespeare have used love
is blind to describe the tendency to ignore a loved
one’s imperfections. “The Merchant’s Tale” is a
tale of duplicity, as January’s infatuation with his
bride keeps him from acknowledging her
infidelity.
Othello
IAGO: O, bewar,e, my lord, of jealousy! It is the
green-eyed monster, which doth mock the meat it
feeds on.
Jealousy is often personified as the green-eyed
monster, calling to mind the image of a mean and
ferocious beast that often attacks out of insecurity or
fear.
Wear my heart upon my sleeve
This English idiom appeared in the play, Othello. The
character is afraid to reveal her true feelings as it
might hurt Othello.
Today,this phrase describes someone who shows real
emotions about something. To show feelings openly.
Julius Caesar Henry V

CASCA: Nay, an I tell you that, Ill ne’er

look you i’ the face again: but those that PISTOL: The king’s a bawcock, and a
understood him smiled at one another and heart of gold, a lad of life, an imp of
shook their heads; but, for mine own part, fame, of parents good, of fist most
it was Greek to me. valiant.

If something’s all Greek to you, that means Someone with a heart of gold has a
you can’t understand it. This idiom is very kind and good-natured disposition
commonly used to describe new or foreign
ideas.
 Idiomatic expressions play a crucial role in
stylistic language by injecting color, vividness,
and cultural resonance into communication.
Role of They serve as linguistic tools that go beyond
literal meaning, allowing writers and speakers to
idiomatic convey complex ideas or emotions with brevity
and flair. In the realm of style, idioms contribute

expressions in to a unique tone, helping to create a specific

atmosphere or mood in the text. Additionally,
they can establish a connection with the
stylistic audience by tapping into shared cultural
experiences. Skillful use of idioms adds a layer of
sophistication to stylistic expression, making
language more engaging and memorable.
Thank you!