Chapter 4

Solutions and their concentrations

4. Introduction
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances of
molecular dimensions, whose composition can be varied within
certain limits.
A solution has two components namely, solute and solvent.
A solute is:
•a substance that dissolves.
•a substance existing in small proportion.
•the most active component chemically.

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 Cont...
 A solvent is:

• A substance that does the dissolving process.

• A substance existing in larger proportion.
• A substance whose physical state doesn’t change during the
solution process.
• The least active component chemically.
 NB: Solutes and solvents may be of any form of matter: solid,
liquid or gas.

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 4.1 Types of solutions
 There are three types of solutions:

i. Gaseous solution: If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved

under any given set of conditions.
ii. Liquid solution: If the solvent is a liquid, then gases, liquids and
solids can be dissolved.
iii. Solid solution: If the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids, and
solids can be dissolved.

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 Cont...
 Some common examples for each [types of solution]

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 4.2 Ways of expressing concentration

1. Percent by mass and volume:

 Percentage composition may be the percentage of the solute
relative to the final solution on either weigh-by-weight or
volume- by- volume basis.
 3 different percent units are known.

I.

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 Cont...
E.g. An aqueous solution is made by dissolving 1.75g of NaCl in 50g
of solution. Calculate the mass percentage of NaCl.
Solution:
• Mass of NaCl = 1.75g
• Mass of solution = 50.0g
• Mass % of NaCl = ?

Therefore; % NaCl = 3.5%

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 Cont...
For preparation:
Weight to measure = (% desired/100) x solution weight desired
Exercise: How would you prepare 250g of an aqueous solution that

is 2.5% by mass of KI?

II.
E.g.:
 A 5% v/v solution means 5ml of solute is dissolved in 100ml of
solution.
 A 12% v/v wine is one that is prepared by mixing 12ml of alcohol
(solute) in 100ml of solution (wine). But note that, a 12% v/v
wine may not be prepared by mixing 12ml of alcohol with 88ml
of wine since volumes of liquids are not always additive.
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 Cont...

 For preparation:
Volume to measure = (% desired/100) X solution volume desired
Exercise: How would you prepare:
a) 500.0 ml of 15% (v/v) ethanol solution in water?

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 Cont...

III.

 For preparation:
Weight to measure = (% desired/100) x solution volume desired
2. Mole Fraction ( X ):
 is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total
number of moles of solution (solute and solvent).
 Suppose, a solution contains nA moles of solute and nB moles of
solvent. Then,

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 Cont...
 The sum of mole fraction of all the components in a solution is
always equal to one.

E.g.: A solution is made by dissolving 48g of methanol (CH3OH) in

90g of water. Calculate the mole fraction of methanol and water.
Soln:
• mass of methanol = 48g, Molar mass of methanol = 32g/mol
• mass of water = 90g, molar mass of water = 18g/mol
• Mole of methanol = 48/32 = 1.5 moles
• Mole of water = 90/18 = 5 moles
• Total number of moles = 1.5 + 5.0 = 6.5
Therefore;
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 Cont...
Exercise:
1. A solution is made by dissolving 35.6g of toluene (C6H5CH3;M.Wt.
= 92g/mol), in 125g of benzene (C6H6 ; M.wt. = 78g/mol).
Calculate the mole fraction of toluene and benzene.
2. A solution contains 116 g of acetone (C3H6O; M.Wt. = 58g/mol),
138 g of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH; M.Wt. = 46g/mol) and 126 g of
water. Determine the mole fraction of each of the components of
the solution.

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 Cont...

3. Molarity (M):- is defined as the number of moles of a solute per

liter of solution.

 For preparation of solution of any desired molarity (MD) and

volume (VD):
Grams of solute to measure = VD X MD X Msolute,
Where:
• VD refers to volume desired in liter;
• MD refers to molarity desired and
• Msolute means molecular weight of the solute.
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 Cont...
• E.gs.
1. 24.6g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water and the solution is
made to 500cm3 in a volumetric flask. Calculate the molarity of
the solution.
Soln: Mass of NaOH = 24.6g, volume of solution = 500cm3 = 0.5L,
Mole of NaOH = mass/molar mass = 24.6g/40g/mol = 0.615mol
Molarity = 0.615 mol/0.5 L = 1.23 M
2. Calculate the number of moles and number of grams of KMnO4
(F.Wt = 158g/mol) in 3.0 L of a 0.25 M solution. [Ans. n=0.75mol &
m=119g]
Ex: Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 18.25g
of HCl in 250ml solution.

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 Cont...
4. Molality (m): is the number of moles of solute dissolved per
kilogram of solvent.

E.g.: Calculate the molality of the solution containing 20.7g of

potassium carbonate (K2CO3) dissolved in 500ml of solution whose
density is 1g/ml.
Solution:
• Mass of K2CO3 = 20.7g, mole of K2CO3 = mass of K2CO3/molar mass
of K2CO3 = 20.7g/138g/mol = 0.15 mol.
• Mass of solution = density X volume of solution, = 1g/mol X 500 ml
= 500gm.
• Mass of solvent = mass of solution – mass of solute = 500gm –
20.7gm = 479.3gm = 0.4793kg
• Therefore; 14
 Cont...
Ex:
1. Calculate the molality of a solution that contains 90.0 g of benzoic
acid, C6H5COOH, (MWt = 122 g/mol) in 350 mL of water.
2. Calculate the molality of the solution and mole fraction of the
solute in a solution containing 3g of urea per 250g of water.
5. Normality (N): It is the number of equivalents of the solute
dissolved per liter of the solution.

• But,

• Where ‘n’ is charge of species

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 Cont...
 Consequently, the following simple relationship exists between
normality and molarity. N = n x M
E.g. : What is the normality of a solution prepared by dissolving
7.88g of H2SO4 in 250ml solution?
Solution :
• Mass of H2SO4 = 7.88g, molar mass = 98 g/mol
• Volume of solution = 250 ml = 0.250L

 For preparation of solution of any desired normality (ND) and

 volume :
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Grams of solute to measure = VD X ND X Equivalent
 Cont...
6. Part per Million (ppm) /Billion (ppb):
• ppm: is most often assumed to mean milligrams of the solute per
liter of solution (mg/liter)
ppm=
• ppb: is to mean micrograms of solute per liter (μg/liter).
ppb=
 The grams to be measured (when the solute is a pure solid or
liquid) are calculated as follows:

 ppb = ppm x 1000

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 4.3 Preparation of solutions

A. Preparing Stock Solutions

 A stock solution is prepared by weighing out an appropriate
portion of a pure solid or by measuring out an appropriate
volume of a pure liquid and diluting to a known volume.
 Exactly how this is done depends on the required concentration
units.
• If starting with a solid, use the following procedure:
– Calculate the amount of solid required
– Weigh out the solid
– Place in an appropriate volumetric flask
– Fill flask about half full with water and mix (shake).
– Fill to the mark with water and invert to mix.

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 Cont...
• Then:

• Grams of solute to measure = VD X MD X M solute

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 Cont...
E.g.: Describe how you would prepare the following three solutions:
(a) 500 mL of approximately 0.20 M NaOH using solid NaOH;
(b) 1 L of 150.0 ppm Cu2+ using Cu metal; and
(c) 2 L of 4% v/v acetic acid using concentrated glacial acetic acid.
Solution
(a). Since the concentration only needs to be known to two
significant figures, the mass of NaOH and volume of solution do
not need to be measured exactly. The desired mass of NaOH is:
Given: VD = 500 ml =0.5L
Molarity = 0.2 M = 0.2 mol/L
Molar mass = 40g/mol
 Grams of solute to measure = 0.5 L x0.2 mol/L x 40g/mol = 4gm.
 Therefore; to prepare the solution we place 4.0 g of NaOH, in a
bottle or beaker and add approximately 500 mL of water. 20
 Cont...
(b). Since the concentration of Cu2+ needs to be exact, the mass of Cu
metal and the final solution volume must be measured exactly. The
desired mass of Cu metal is:
Given VD = 1L
ppmD = 150ppm = 150mg/L

 Therefore; to prepare the solution we measure out exactly 0.15 g of

Cu into a small beaker. To dissolve the Cu we add a small portion of
concentrated HNO3 and gently heat until it completely dissolves. The
resulting solution is poured into a 1-L volumetric flask. The beaker is
rinsed repeatedly with small portions of water, which are added to
the volumetric flask. This process, which is called a quantitative
transfer, ensures that the Cu+2 is completely transferred to the
volumetric flask. Finally, additional water is added to the volumetric
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flask‘s calibration mark.
 Cont...
(c). The concentration of this solution is only approximate, so
volumes do not need to be measured exactly. The necessary
volume of glacial acetic acid is:
Given .VD = 2L
.%desired = 4%
• Volume to measure = (% desired/100) X solution volume desired
= 4%/100 X 2L = 0.08L = 80 ml
 Therefore; to prepare the solution we use a graduated cylinder to
transfer 80 mL of glacial acetic acid to a container that holds
approximately 2 L, and we then add sufficient water to bring the
solution to the desired volume.

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 Cont...
Exercise
1. Describe how to Prepare 800 mL of 2 M sodium chloride.
(M.wt.NaCl = 58.45 g/mol)
2. Potassium bromide is used as a sedative and as anti-convulsive
agent. Explain how you would prepare 250 mL of 0.600 M aqueous
KBr solution.
3. How many moles of each kind of ions are present in
i) 135 mL of 0.82 M (NH4)2SO4? ii) 75 mL of 0.250 M Al2(SO4)3?

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 Cont...
B. Preparing Solutions by Dilution
CB x VB = CA x VA ....................... Dilution Law
Where :
 CB is the concentration of the stock solution,
 VB is the volume of the stock solution being diluted (before
dilution),
 CA is the concentration of the dilute solution, and
 VA is the volume of the solution after dilution.
NB: The total amount of solute is the same before and after dilution

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 Cont...
E.gs.
1. A laboratory procedure calls for 250 mL of an approximately 0.10 M
solution of NH3. Describe how you would prepare this solution using a
stock solution of concentrated NH3 (14.8 M).
Given : CB = 14.8 M, CA = 0.1 M, VA= 250 ml, required VB =?
Solution:
• Substituting known volumes in above equation, 14.8 M x VB = 0.10 M
x 0.25 L

 Since we are trying to make a solution that is approximately 0.10 M

NH3, we can measure the appropriate amount of concentrated NH3
using a graduated cylinder, transfer the NH3 to a beaker, and add
sufficient water to bring the total solution volume to approximately
250 mL. 25
 Cont...
2. A sample of an ore was analyzed for Cu2+as follows. A 1.25g sample
of the ore was dissolved in acid and diluted to volume in a 250mL
volumetric flask. A 20mL portion of the resulting solution was
transferred by pipet to a 50mL volumetric flask and diluted to
volume. An analysis showed that the concentration of Cu2+ in the
final solution was 4.62 ppm. What is the weight percent of Cu in
the original ore?
Given: VB = 20 ml, VA = 50 ml, CA = 4.62 ppm CB =?
Solution:
• (ppm Cu2+ ) x 20.00 mL = 4.62 ppm x 50.00 mL

• To calculate the grams of Cu+2 in the original sample, we multiply

this concentration by the total volume..
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 Cont...

• g
• Then, the % w/w of cu is

 Weight to measure = (% desired/100) x solution weight desired

3. Describe how you would prepare 1 L of a 2 M solution of acetic
acid. The gram formula weight of acetic acid is 60.05 g/mol, and its
density is 1.049 g/mL.

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 Cont...
Solution:
= 120gm of acetic acid can
be used but acetic acid is liquid, hence we have to calculate
volume that will be taken from its density.
i.e. density = mass of acetic acid/volume the volume = mass/density
= 120gm/1.049g/mL =114ml of acetic acid will be taken.
4. The Contact process can be used to produce concentrated H2SO4,
a solution with specific gravity of 1.84 and containing 98.3% H2SO4
by mass. What is the molarity of the acid?

But density of water is 1g/ml then

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 Cont...
• This implies density of substance in a solution is 1.84g/ml; on the
other hand mass of the solution is 1.84 gm in 1ml. However,
molarity is expressed in mol/L. hence; the mass of solution in 1L of
solution is 1.84X103. Then,

• The molarity (M) =

Exercises:
1. Describe how you would prepare 1.0 L of a 0.10 M solution of
sulfuric acid from a 3.0 M solution of sulfuric acid.
2. Calculate the mass of HNO3 (63g/mol) in a solution that has a
specific gravity of 1.42 and is 70.5% HNO3 (w/w).
NB:- Genaeral; Molarity =

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 4.4. Activity and Activity Coefficients
 It has been already pointed out that the effective concentration
of ionized ions is less than the actual concentration.
 The decrease in effective concentration is due to the interionic
attraction.
 The factor that is used to convert actual concentration to
effective concentration (activity) is called activity coefficient.
 The actual concentration is the stoichiometric concentration and
the factor accounts for interionic interaction of electrolytic
solution.
 If the actual concentration is C, the effective concentration is a,
and activity coefficient is f, the mathematical relationship among
the three factors is given by:
Activity = Concentration x Activity coefficient or a = fC

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 Cont...
 The ionic strength of a solution ( ) is defined as half the sum of
the products of the concentration of all the ions present in
solution by the square of the charge of the given ion:

Where :
 Ci is the molar concentration of the ion and
 Zi is the charge on the ion.
 For a solution that contains two or more components that don’t
interact the ionic strength is given by :
μ= ½ (C1Z12 + C2Z22+ C3Z32 + … + Cn Zn2)
Where: C1, C2, …, Cn stands for the concentrations of ion 1, 2, 3,…, n
present in the solution and Zn is their respective charges.

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 Cont...
 P. Debye and E. Huckel found the mathematical relationship
between ionic strength of a solution and the activity coefficient in
1923.
 At 25oC mean activity coefficient is given by:
--------Debye-Huckel Equation

Where : Zi is charge of the ions in the dissociation of the salt.

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 Cont...
E.gs:
1) Calculate the ionic strength of 0.1 M solution of NaCl.
Solution: NaCl is a strong electrolyte that dissociates almost
completely. Hence, the concentrations of sodium and chloride
ions in solution are approximated to be 0.1 M.
 Thus, μ = ½ [CNa+Z2Na+ + CCl-Z2Cl-] = ½ [(0.1(+1)2 + (0.1) (-1)2] = 0.1
2) What is the ionic strength of a solution containing in 1 liter 0.01
mol of K2SO4 and 0.01 mol Al2(SO4)3. [Ans. µ=0.18]
3) Calculate the concentration and activity of each ion in a mixture
obtained by mixing 25 mL of 0.120 M MnCl2 and 35.0 mL of 0.06
M KCl solution. [Ans.[Mn+2]= 3mmol/60ml = 0.05 M; [K+]=
2.1mmol/ 60.0 mL = 0.035 mmol/mL = 0.035 M; [Cl-]= 8.1
mmol/60ml = 0.135 M and aMn+2 = fMn+2CMn+2 = 0.243 x 0.050=
0.0122 M; aK+ = aCl- = fCl-CCl- = 0.702 x 0.035 = 0.0246 M ]
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END!

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