Applied Business Research-Quantitative

Data Analysis and

interpretation
Dr. Ubedullah Khoso
Condition 1: AI burger only
Condition 2: Human
burger only
Condition 3: AI, burger
and Fat
Condition 4: Human,
burger and Fat
Condition 5, AI, burger
and Fit
Condition 6: Human, burger and Fit
Study 2 Fit vs. Fat

Study 1 Attitude
(Healthiness)

Attitude
AI vs.
towards
Human
food

Purchase
intention
Learning Objectives
• Become Familiar with the SPSS environment
• Learn how to prepare and manage data in SPSS
• Learn how to perform descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
using SPSS
Introduction
• SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) is a software program used by
researchers in various disciplines for quantitative analysis of complex data.

• The common advantage of this: It is easy to tech and easy to learn,

• Because it simple, it encourages mindless analysis.
Introduction

“garbage in garbage out”

If data is collected improperly or coding is done wrongly the outcome will be as bad
as the quality of input.
1. Raw data
2. Nonresponse error
3. Data integrity
Editing , coding and Data file

• Editing is the process of checking the completeness, consistency and legibility of

data and making the data ready for coding and transfer to storage.
• In modern times, mostly we will be dealing with nonresponse (what we call
missing value) and may be editing the response for variables where data is
measured on continuous scale (when respondent enter a numeric value of his
choice, such as willing to spent money, age, duration of time at a current
location).
• Editing might be of more importance in field research, where interviewer is
capturing the information, and should look at consistency, clarity of handwriting,
logic of responses.
Editing , coding and Data file
• Coding, is assigning numerical values to consumer responses. Again, most of the
coding decision is done at questionnaire design stage, and data is received in
coded form.
• Dummy coding is assigning “1” or “0” or (1 or 2; -1 or 1)where each number
represent alternate response, for example if 0 is female 1 will be male. We will
learn more about dummy variables in future chapters.
Data files terminology
1. Field (called name in SPSS file), string character(computer terminology , in SPSS
we will have the choice to choose from numeric, string, dot, comma, or dollar to
indicate numeric type of our data). We usually choose numeric in most of the
cases.
2. Record is the set of all responses from a single individual, in SPSS we call them
case.
3. Data files are electronic format of data , usually in matrix form(columns and
rows), rows represent the respondents and columns represent the variables.
Basic Data Analysis
Descriptive Statistics
1. Descriptive analysis is the elementary transformation of raw data in a way that
describe the basic characteristics such as central tendency(mean median and
mode), distribution(frequency distribution) and variability (range, variance and
standard deviation).
2. Nominal and ordinal data will only allow us to run frequencies and mode as well.
Interval and ratio data will also allow to calculate mean and standard deviation.
3. Tabulation and cross tabulation/contingency tables . Tabulation offers frequency
distribution of a single variable. Cross tabulation looks at the relationships in term
of frequencies for more than one variable.
4. Transformation is changing the raw data into a format that can be used for further
analysis. Simple transformation example can be date of birth into age.
Opening
Opening
Coding is
required here
Coding open-ended questions
• Slightly more complicated
• To code responses to this you will need to scan through the
questionnaires and look for common themes
Saving data file.
• You must save data file after doing this
• Any change you make in spss you must save it, spsss doesn’t save
automatically.
Importing data file.
• You can directly import data file from excel if it meets following
conditions:
• The variable names must conform to the SPSS rules for naming variables
To split the data file or select cases
• Sometimes it is necessary to split your file and to repeat analyses for
groups (e.g. males and females) separately
• Study 1 and 2 in our case.
Applied Business Research-Quantitative

• Descriptive stats
• Reliability Validity
• Tests of Differences: t-tests and
Chi-Square test

Dr. Ubedullah Khoso

Study 2 Fit vs. Fat

Study 1 Attitude
(Healthiness)

Attitude
AI vs.
towards
Human
food

Purchase
intention
Skewness and Kurtosis (Normality of
distribution of scores)
• These measure indicate that normality
of data.
• The skewness value provides an
indication of the symmetry of the
distribution.
• Kurtosis provides information about
the ‘peakedness’ of the distribution.
• Within the range of -2 to +2: Better
• Within the range of -3 to +3:
Acceptable.
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013; Kline, 2016).
Reliability and
Validity
 Reliability:
• Consistency and stability of measurements or results obtained from a
research study or experiment.
• In other words, it is the extent to which a measure produces the same results when
repeated under similar conditions.
• Test-retest reliability: Consistency of test scores or measurements over time.
• For example, if a student takes the same test twice and scores the same both times, the test can
be said to have high test-retest reliability.
• Inter-rater reliability: Consistency of scores or measurements when different
raters or observers are used.
• For example, if two different teachers grade a student's essay and come up with the same score,
the essay can be said to have high inter-rater reliability.
• cx
Reliability:

• Internal consistency reliability: The extent to which all the items in a test or
questionnaire measure the same construct or concept.
• For example, if all the questions in a personality test measure the same personality trait, the test
can be said to have high internal consistency reliability.
• The most commonly used statistic is Cronbach’s coefficient alpha
• Alpha value (between0 to 1), if value of alpha is above 0.70 then the scale is reliable
• SPSS: Analyse  Scale  Reliability analysis  Select the items and move them items
window Click on statistics select scale (it is must), others are optional
Validity
• The validity of a scale refers to the degree to which it measures what it is supposed
to measure
• It is the extent to which a study or research measure is measuring what it claims to
measure.
• Content validity: The extent to which a research measure or instrument covers all aspects of
the concept or phenomenon being studied.
• Content validity is concerned with the adequacy and completeness of the items in the measure
• For example, a questionnaire designed to measure depression should cover all the important symptoms of
depression.
• Construct validity: The degree to which a research measure or instrument accurately assesses
the underlying construct or concept being studied.
• It is more related to the concept (theory)
• For example, a personality test should accurately measure personality traits such as openness,
conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Composite mean variable
Composite mean variable
• Simply computing a variable based on the mean value of multiple
items.
• Pre-requisite for that is: reliability and validity of the data.
• When reviewing possible scales to use you should collect information on the reliability
and validity of each of the scales.
• No matter how good the reports are concerning the reliability and validity of your scales,
it is important to pilot-test them with your intended sample.
Now we compute
Third
write the First, select all here
name of
variable

Fourth
select the
items and
separate
them with
comma Second, select mean
here (Double click)
HYPOTHESIS TESTING PROCEDURE
First a hypothesis is derived from the research objective and research
question, need to be written as specifically as possible.
Next a sample is obtained, and the relevant variable is measured.
The measured value obtained in the sample is compared to the value stated
explicitly or implied in the hypothesis.
TYPE 1 OR TYPE 2 ERRORS
• Type 1 error: Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true , has a
probability of alpha, the type 1 error occurs when researcher conclude
that a relationship exist in the population, when it does not.
• Type 2 error: when you accept the null hypothesis where you should
have rejected it because the relationship exists in the population.
SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL AND P VALUES
• Significance in statistics is the probability of the results not due to chance or
randomness.

• P value is the probability value, that null hypothesis is true.

• For example, a p value of p<.05 means there are only 5% chance that the null
hypothesis is true.

• Acceptable significance levels/p values are .10, .05, and .01, which give us the
probabilities of 10, 5 and 1%.
 Exploring the relationship Discriminant
Structural
Canonical
Pearson
Partial
Regression
equation
correlation
function
correlation
correlation
modelling
analysis

Choosing the appropriate statistical

technique
T-tests

One way ANOVA

Exploring the group difference

Two way ANOVA
(Invariance tests.)

Multivariate ANOVA

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

 1. Type of question to be
answered.
CHOOSING THE
APPROPRIATE 2. The number of variables
STATISTICAL involved.
TECHNIQUE

3. The level of scale

measurement.
CHOOSING THE
APPROPRIATE
STATISTICAL
TECHNIQUE
Parametric and non parametric techniques
• The word parametric comes from parameter, or characteristic of a
population.
• The difference lies in the assumptions
• Parametric: This often includes assumptions about the shape of the
population distribution (e.g. normally distributed)
• t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis
• Non-parametric: does not make assumptions about the underlying population
distribution (which is why they are sometimes referred to as distribution-free
tests).
• Chi-square test, Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and Kruskal-Wallis
test
Test of Variance
Chi-Square
• Assumptions:
• Random samples.
• Independent observations.
• When IV and DV are
categorical variables.
T-tests
• Independent-samples t-test, used when you want to compare the mean scores of
two different groups of people or conditions.
• E.g., A company wants to determine if there is a significant difference in customer satisfaction
between two different store locations.
• Paired-samples t-test, used when you want to compare the mean scores for the
same group of people on two different occasions, or when you have matched
pairs.
• E.g., A business wants to know if a new product is more popular than an older product.
Effect size (Eta square)
• Provides an indication of the magnitude of the differences between
your groups (not just whether the difference could have occurred by
chance).