Research Methods in Psychology

Why is Research important in psychology?

 Research helps us in finding answers that are supported by factual evidence, instead of
just relying on opinion, intuition, what people say, and luck
 Objective understanding of ourselves and our world
 History has many examples of how our “common sense” or intuition failed us
 WHY SHOULD WE BE SO CRITICAL?

 Think of all the information you see in advertising campaigns and on the internet that
claims to be based on “scientific evidence”
 Sometimes it’s just a belief or perspective of a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw
attention to their perspective
 E.g. Beauty products
 Those memes on Facebook starting with “Psychology says” or research says
 People are more likely to believe on something if we say that it’s researched.
The Case of Kitty Genovese

 In March 1964, a young woman named Kitty was stabbed repeatedly & raped by a knife-
wielding assailant as she returned from work to her New York City apartment. The 3 am
attack lasted about 30 minutes, during which her screams and pleas for help were heard by 38
of her neighbors. Many went to their windows to find out what was happening. Yet nobody
helped her and by the time anyone called the police, she had died.
 The incident drew attention from a shocked public and people expressed outrage over’
‘bystander apathy’ and people’s refusal to ‘get involved’. In New York City people reacted
with disbelief and even shame to this murder.
 Scientific Method

Carry out Research

Formulate an
Explanation Operationalize Hypothesis

Identify Questions of
Interest through Specify a theory
observations Select a research Method

Develop a hypothesis Collect a data

Analyze a data
 Scientific understanding

1. Question of interest (observation)

 Kitty incident. Why did no one help?
2. Form hypothesis
 If multiple bystanders are present, THEN diffusion of responsibility will decrease bystander’s
likelihood of intervening.
3. Test hypothesis
 Create ‘emergency’ in controlled setting
 Manipulate number of bystanders
 Measure helping
Scientific understanding

4. Analyze data
 Helping decreases as the perceived number of bystanders increases. (hypothesis is supported)
5. Further research & theory building
 Additional studies support the hypothesis. Theory of Social Impact is developed.
6. New hypothesis derived from the theory
 The theory is then tested directly by deriving new hypothesis and conducting new research.
The Scientific Method (Six Basic Elements)

Observation

Defining a problem

Proposing a hypothesis (an educated guess

that can be tested)

Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis

Publishing results

Building a theory
Scientific Attitudes

 Understanding behavior rely on scientific methods of research in psychology.

 Three attitudes:
 Curiosity - ‘Whys?’
 Skepticism - ‘evidence’
 Open-mindedness - ‘conclusions may differ from their beliefs’
 Scientific method is an approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire
knowledge & understanding about behavior and other areas of interest.
Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations

 Psychologists look for explanations of behaviour, nature and cause of behaviour.

 Once questions have been identified, they develop a theory to explain the phenomenon
 Theories are broad explanations and predictions
 Provide a framework
 We all have our own informal theories
 Psychological theories are more formal and focused
 Established on the basis of past literature, early relevant research, previous theories and
psychologists general knowledge of field
 Theories are broad and detailed.
 Case of Kitty Genovese
Hypotheses: Crafting testable predictions

 Deciding on a theory-investigative process

 A way to test the theory-hypothesis
 A hypothesis is a prediction that is stated in a way that allows it to be tested.
 We develop theories about the world and we develop hypotheses about events and behaviour.
 Can be trivial or meaningful
 An Operational definition is the translation of a hypothesis into a specific, testable procedures
that can be measured and observed.
 Eg: fear.
 Hypothesis in Case of kitty Genovese: “The more people who are witness an emergency
situation the likely it is that help will be given to victim”
 Observation 1
 Children who are exposed to some stressful events show sensitive behavior when exposed to similar
situation.
 Observation 2
 The trend that we find more shoppers at grocery stores during first week of the month has changed over the
years!!
 Observation 3
 A new employee would found to be well dressed and more punctual than old employees.
 Observation 4
 Females tend to share more secrets with their friends than males.
 Observation 5
 People avoid bargaining in bigger malls.
 Observation 6
 Teenagers take their friends’ advice more seriously than their parents/guardians.
Key Terms

1. Hypothesis testing: Scientifically testing the predicted outcome of an experiment or an

educated guess about the relationship between variables
2. Operational definition: Defines a scientific concept by stating specific actions or procedures
used to measure it
3. Theory: A system of ideas that interrelates facts and concepts, summarizes existing data, and
predicts future observations
 A good theory must be falsifiable (i.e., operationally defined) so that it can be disconfirmed
4. Sample & Population
 Small number of people which represent the characteristics of the population.
5. Variables
 Behaviors, events, or other characteristics which can change or vary in some way.
Understanding Operational definitions

Conceptual Concrete
Level Level

Interrupted finishing a
Frustration Puzzle (Operational
Definition)

Number of times person

Aggression insults interrupter
(Operational Definition)
RESEARCH METHODS

CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Psychological Research

 Qualitative
 Quantitative
 Gathers information that is not in
 Gathers data in numerical form which can
numerical form. For example, diary
accounts, open-ended be put into categories, or in rank order, or
questionnaires, unstructured measured in units of measurement; used
interviews and unstructured to construct graphs and tables of raw data.
observations.  Surveys, structured interviews &
observations, and reviews of records or
documents for numeric information
 Data is typically descriptive data
and as such is harder to analyze than
quantitative data.

 Includes focus groups, in-depth

interviews, and reviews of
documents for types of themes
Difference between two Methods
Qualitative
 Primarily inductive process used to formulate
theory or hypotheses
 More subjective. More in-depth information on
a few cases
 Text-based , no statistical tests
 Unstructured or semi-structured response
options
 Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on
skill and rigor of the researcher
 Time expenditure lighter on the planning end
and heavier during the analysis phase
 Less generalizable
Quantitative
 Primarily deductive process used to test pre-
specified concepts/hypotheses that make up a
theory
 More objective: provides observed effects
(interpreted by researchers) on a problem or
condition
 Number-based, statistical tests are used.
 Fixed response options
 Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on
the measurement /instrument used
 Time expenditure heavier on the planning
phase and lighter on the analysis phase
 More generalizable
 Methods of Psychological Research

 Archival Research
 Naturalistic Observation
 Survey and interview Research
 The Case Study and focus group
 Correlational Research
 Experimental Research
Archival Research

 Research in which existing data such as census

documents, college records or newspaper clippings,
previous studies are examined to test a hypothesis.
 Historical accounts
 Advantages:
 It is an inexpensive means of testing a hypothesis.
 Faster way
 Disadvantages:
 The data may not be in the form which can be used to
test the hypothesis fully.
 The information could be incomplete or collected
haphazardly.
Naturalistic Observation

 Research in which investigator simply observes some naturally

occurring behavior and does not make a change in the
situation. For eg. Observing helping behavior in a high crime
area.
 Advantage:
 We get the first hand knowledge of what people do in their natural
situations. Getting raw and true to its max data.
 Disadvantages:
 Lack of control
 Time consuming- they must wait until appropriate conditions
occur.
 Furthermore, if people realize that they are being observed, they
may change their natural response.
 Role of Researcher is passive & simply records whatever is
happening
 Survey Research

 Research in which people chosen to represent some larger

population are asked a series of questions about their
behavior, thoughts or attitudes.
 A sample that is representative of the population
 Advantages:
 Straightforward way of finding out what people think, do, feel
by asking them directly.
 Survey methods have become highly sophisticated enabling us
to make inferences.
 Quick, easy, cost efficient
 Disadvantages:
 Sample may not be representative
 People may not give their true responses.
 Accuracy of sample is also very important factor.
Interviews

 Typically involves a face-to-face meeting in which

a researcher (interviewer) asks an individual a
series of questions.
 Can be online or in-person
 Allows the interviewer to observe verbal & non-
verbal behavior
 Allows follow-up questions and clarifications
 Advantage:
 Allows for a wider range of responses
 Disadvantage:
 Time consuming
 No cause-and-effect relationships can be inferred
 The Case Study

 An in-depth intensive investigation of an individual or small

group of people.
 Case study often involve psychological testing – a procedure in
which carefully designed set of questions is used to gain insight
into the personality of the individual or group being studied.
 It is used not only to gain insight about the individual but to
understand the general behavioral patterns of people.
 Freud developed psychodynamic theories based on his individual
patients.
 Advantages:
 Useful in studying rare phenomenon- serial killers, terrorists
 An opportunity for innovation
 Disadvantages:
 Difficult to generalise from a single case
 Possible researcher bias in data collection and interpretation
 Focus Groups

 Focus Group Interviews

 A group of people who discuss a subject under
direction of a moderator.
 More like a discussion
 Recorded
 If audio recording is done then researchers first
transcribe data
 Mostly done by marketers and sociologists to
learn about the consumer insights and serious
social issues.
 Correlational Research

 It examines the relationship between two sets of

variables to determine whether they are associated
or ‘correlated’
 Variables are events, behaviors or other
characteristics that can change or vary in some
way.
 “ An increase in hours of studying improves test
scores”
 The strength or direction of the relationships
between the two variables are represented by a
mathematical score – correlation that range from
+1.0 to -1.0
 Positive correlation
 Negative correlation
 No correlation
 The stronger the correlation between two
variables (aka the stronger the relationship
between two variables), the more predictable
changes in one variable will be as the other
variable changes.
 Experimental Method of Research

Experimental Research

 It examines the causal relationship

 Investigating the relationship between two (or
more) variables by deliberately producing a change
in one variable in a situation & observing the
effects of that change on the other aspects of the
situation.
 The change that experimenter deliberately
produces in a situation is called the experimental
manipulation.
Key features of an Experiment

 Experimental group (receives treatment) versus Control group (receives no treatment)

 The manipulation implemented by the experimenter is called Treatment
 Independent variable (factor that is manipulated) versus Dependent variable (factor that is
measured)
 Random assignment of participants – participants characteristics have equal chance to be
distributed across the various groups
 Significant Outcome – meaningful results (statistical procedures)
 Replication – the repetition of research using different procedures, settings, people in order to
increase confidence in prior findings.
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT (Bandura,
1961)
Experiment Example
Potential Researcher Problems

• Researcher influences the research results

in the expected direction/ as hypothesized
Experimenter Bias

• Believing one's culture is typical of

Ethnocentrism all cultures
Potential Participant Problems

• Research participants are

unrepresentative of the larger
Sample Bias population for e.g. 50/100

• Research participants are influenced

by the researcher or experimental
Participant bias conditions for e.g.. incentives
Separating Fact from Fiction

 Be skeptical/doubtful!
 Consider the source of information
 Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and causation (are claims
based on correlational results yet passed off as causations?)
 Be sure to distinguish between observation and inference (e.g., Robert is crying,
but do we know why he is crying?)
 Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated by monetary gain
 For example is not proof!
The Barnum Effect

 Barnum effect: Tendency to consider

personal descriptions accurate if stated in
general terms
 Always have a little something for everyone.
Make sure all palm readings, horoscopes,
etc. are so general that something in them
will always apply to any one person!

 https://youtu.be/mv2VBeqvqQ4
The Science of Psychology:
Ethical Guidelines

 Ethical Guidelines for Human

Research Participants:
 Informed consent
 Voluntary participation
 Restricted use of deception
 Debriefing
 Confidentiality
 Alternative activities
The Science of Psychology:
Ethical Guidelines(cont.)

 Rights of Nonhuman Participants: Advocates believe

nonhuman research offers significant scientific benefits.
Opponents question these benefits & suggest nonhuman
animals cannot give informed consent.
 General Guidelines: Psychologists must maintain high
standards for both human & nonhuman animal research.
The Ethics of research

 American Psychological Association 1992 developed strict ethical guidelines aimed at

protecting participants:
 Protection of participants from physical or mental harm
 The right of privacy
 Complete voluntary participation
 Informing participants about the nature of procedures prior to
their participation