PS ELECT 4 – RESEARCH

Research - A systematic/scientific process of gathering and processing of data in seeking new knowledge and in order to
find answers to critical questions/problems.

The Aims of Research

1. To expand knowledge and wisdom
2. To solve critical problems
3. To improve the quality of life

Characteristics of Scientific Method

1. Systematic, accurate, and precise - observations are recorded accurately
2. Follows the rules of objectivity - what is and not what it ought to be; intellectual honesty
3. Under controlled conditions - eliminate other factors/variables that might intrude
4. Ethical

Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge

1. Tentative
2. Shared and made public
3. Empirically Verifiable

Qualities of a Good Researcher

1. Honest
2. Skeptic
3. Open to criticism
4. Resourceful
5. Patient
6. Has creative imagination
7. Has logical mind; scholarly

Overview of Research Process

1. Identification of the research topic and problem
2. Identification of the research methodology
3. Collection of data
4. Processing of data
5. Preparation and submission of the report

Research Problem - any significant, perplexing and challenging situation the solution of which requires reflective thinking

A problem is researchable when:

1. There is no known solution to it
2. There are probable solutions but they are not yet tested
3. The occurrence of the phenomenon requires scientific investigation to arrive at precise solution;
4. The solution can be arrived at by using statistical methods and other quantitative techniques; or by using acceptable
qualitative methodologies.

Sources of Research Problem

1. Specialization of the researcher

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2. Current and past researches
3. Recommendations from past studies
4. Original and creative ideas of the researcher based on problems met in the locality/profession/discipline

Criteria/Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

1. SMART
S – specific, not broad
M– measurable, using empirical tests, questionnaires, etc.
A – achievable/attainable; data are achievable using appropriate quantitative / qualitative procedures
R – resource-oriented; results-oriented
T – time-bound; time frame is required in every activity
2. Interesting; innovative; cost-effective; relevant to critical needs and problems; relevant to government/institutional
thrusts

Quantitative Research - It proceeds with an inquiry into a social or human problem based on testing a theory composed
of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures in order to determine the predictive
generalizations of the theory that hold true. It is deductive because a theoretical framework is expected to be formulated
even prior to data gathering.

Qualitative Research - An inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem based on building a complex,
holistic picture, formed with words, reporting with detailed views of informants and conducted in natural setting. Its
purpose is to characterize the phenomenon by conveying a picture of it. It is usually inductive because the facts are
gathered first before a theory can be formed.

QUANTITATIVE
Explain, predict, and/or control
Overall Purpose phenomena through focused
collection of numerical data
Aims and methods of social sciences
are not different form other
sciences and strive for testable and
Approach to Inquiry confirmable theories to explain
phenomena using deductive, value-
free (objective), focused, and
outcome-oriented methods
Numeric, operationalized variables,
Data quantifiable coding, statistical
analysis counts, measures
Non-participant structured
observations, structured and formal
interviews, administration of tests
Data Collection and questionnaires, experiments,
survey research, quasi-experiments,
existing data sets
QUALITATIVE
Explain, gain insight and understanding of
phenomena through intensive collection of
narrative data
Subject matter of social science is
fundamentally different and requires a
different goal for inquiry and a different
setoff method of investigation that is
inductive, value-laden (subjective) holistic,
and process-oriented
Narrative, descriptive, people’s own
words, personal documents, field notes,
artifacts, audio and video tapes, transcripts
Document collection, participant
observation, unstructured and informal
interviews, taking of extensive and
detailed field notes, review of artifacts,
focus groups

Raw data are numbers and analysis Raw data are words and analysis are on-
Data Analysis are performed at the end of the going and involves synthesis
study

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 Conclusions and generalizations are Conclusions are tentative, reviewed on an
formulated at the end of the study, on-going basis, and generalizations are
Data Interpretation
stated with predetermined degrees speculative or nonexistent
of certainty
1. Structured, predetermined, 1. Evolves over time, flexible, developing
initial hypotheses, formal, hypotheses, general, negotiated, a
inflexible, specified in details in hunch as how to proceed. Specified
advance of the study, involves only in general terms in advance of the
Design & Methods intervention, manipulation, and study; involves non-intervention and
control; minimal disturbance.
2. Descriptive, correlation, 2. Historical, ethnographic, case study
experimental, causal-
comparative
Explain causes of phenomena Understand social phenomena through
Goal through objective measurement and holistic pictures and depth of
numerical analysis understanding
Tests hypotheses are specific, Generates hypotheses, hypotheses are
Hypotheses testable, and stated prior to the tentative, evolving based on a particular
study study.
1. Goal of measurement is 1. Researcher is the key measurement
objectivity; the scoring and tool, procedures are subjective,
collection of data is not observe and interact with
influenced by the researcher’s human/environment, non-
values, biases, and perception; standardized, narrative data, analysis
Measurement 2. Heavy reliance on tests, scales, ongoing.
structured questionnaires with
specified procedures for scoring,
standardized tests;
3. Collection of numeric data;
4. Analysis occurs at the end
Deductive Reasoning - Deduce from Inductive reasoning - observe and draw
Reasoning theory what should be observed conclusions

Extensive, significantly affects design Limited, does not significantly affect

Review of Literature
of particular study particular study
Randomized, controlled for Non-representative, small, purposive,
extraneous variables, size important, intent to select “small” not necessarily
intent to select “large” representative sample in order to acquire
Sample representative sample in order to in-depth understanding; theoretical
generalize results to a population; sampling, based on context
stratified, control groups, precise
control of extraneous variables
1. Concerned with questions 1. Concerned with finding the answer to
about: How much? How many? questions which begin with Why?
How often? To what extent? How? In what way?
Question of Format 2. Questions are asked in such a 2. Questions are typically open-ended; all
way that the answers are close- allowing for flexibility in response
ended or from a fixed set of
choices

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 Narrative report with contextual Narrative report with contextual
description of numerical values. description and direct quotations from
Final Report (How do the findings impact on research participants
present corpus of knowledge? past
studies? theory? practice?)
1. An excellent way of finalizing 1. Extremely useful when a subject
results and proving or disproving matter is too complex to be answered
a hypothesis. Quantitative by a simple yes or no response.
experiments also filter out 2. The broader scope covered by these
external factors, if properly designs ensures that some useful data
designed so results gained can is always generated; whereas an
be seen as real and unbiased unproved hypothesis in a quantitative
Advantages
2. Quantitative experiments are experiment can mean that a lot of time
useful for testing the results has been wasted)
gained by a series of qualitative
experiments, leading to a final
answer, and narrowing down if
possible directions for follow-up
research to taket
1. Quantitative experiments can be 1. While it is not as time- or resource –
difficult and expensive and consuming as quantitative research, it
require a lot of time to perform. still requires a lot of careful thought
2. Quantitative studies usually and planning to ensure that the results
require extensive statistical obtained are as accurate as possible.
2. It cannot be mathematically analyzed
analysis, which can be difficult,
in the same comprehensive way as
many scientists are not
quantitative results, so can only give a
statisticians. guide to general trends.
Disadvantages 3. Quantitative research designs
also tend to generate only
proved or unproven results,
their being very little room for
grey areas and uncertainly.
4. For the social sciences,
education, anthropology and
psychology, human nature is a
lot more complex than just a
simple yes or no response.

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