Foundations

Foundations of
of Group
Group Behavior
Behavior

Chapter 9

9-1
Learning
Learning Outcomes
Outcomes
 LO1: Defining & Classifying Group
 LO2: Discussing the Stages of Group Development
 LO3: Analysing Group Properties
 LO4: Assessing Group Decision Making; Pros, Cons
and Techniques

9-2
LO1:
LO1: Defining
Defining and
and Classifying
Classifying Groups
Groups
 Group:
– Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent,
who have come together to achieve particular objectives
– Groups can broadly be of two types:
1. Formal Group:
– A group that is defined by the organization’s structure, with
designated work assignments establishing tasks
2. Informal Group:
– Alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined
– Appear naturally in response to the need for social contact
– Deeply affect behavior and performance

9-3
Why
Why do
do people
people form/
form/ join
join Groups
Groups

 Security
 Status
 Self-esteem
 Affiliation
 Power
 Goal Achievement

9-4
Why
Why do
do people
people form/
form/ join
join Groups
Groups
 One explanation behind people’s inclination towards forming
group is given through the “Social Identity theory”

 This theory proposes that people often have emotional reactions to

the failure or success of their groups because their self esteem gets
tied into the groups performance.

 In other words, individuals start to take personal pride/offense at

the success/failure of a group they belong to/wish to belong to.

 Thus, an individual not only has his/her personal identity but also a
“social identity” represented through the group he/she belong to.

 Such type of social identity often leads to negative behavior in the

form of “in group favoritism”

9-5
Why
Why do
do people
people form/
form/ join
join Groups
Groups
 When do people develop a social identities?

– Similarity: Individuals who are similar in terms of value, beliefs,

demographic characteristics tend to have higher level of group
identification.

– Distinctiveness: Individuals who view themselves to be

distinct/unique compared to other groups, tend to band together and
form a common social identity.

– Status: Individuals prefer to link/affiliate themselves with high status

groups.

– Uncertainty reduction: Individuals, at times, seek membership in a

group to understand “who they are and how they fit into the world”.

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LO2:
LO2:Five
FiveStages
Stagesof
ofGroup
GroupDevelopment
DevelopmentModel
Model

• Groups, typically,
follow a
predictable
sequence in their
evolution as
depicted here.

9-7
The
The Five
Five Stages
Stages of
of Group
Group Development
Development
1. Forming
– There is high level of uncertainty among members
regarding groups purpose, structure and leadership. This stage is
complete when members feel they are part of the group.
2. Storming
– In this stage there is lots of conflict between members of the group
regarding control of the group and due to unease arising from
constraints on individuality. A relatively clear hierarchy of
leadership arises at the end of this stage.
3. Norming Stage
– In this stage members start developing close relationships and
cohesiveness. The group norms (common set of expectations
regarding appropriate/inappropriate group behavior) arises.

9-8
The
The Five
Five Stages
Stages of
of Group
Group Development
Development
4. Performing Stage
– The group is finally fully functional. Group energy moves
from getting to know each other to performing task at hand.
5. Adjourning Stage
– This is an additional stage seen in the case of temporary
groups only. At this stage, the groups are disbanded after
achievement of group goals.

The sequence demonstrated in this model do not always occur

in a linear fashion. Certain steps can take place
simultaneously and there might even be a regression in steps.
Moreover, the progression, from one stage to another, also
happens at different paces for different groups.

9-9
An
An Alternative
Alternative Model
Model for
for Group
Group Formation
Formation
Temporary groups with deadlines don’t follow the five-stage model.
Rather, their development is better represented through the following
model.
Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
– Temporary groups under deadlines go through transitions between
inertia and activity—at the halfway point, they experience an
increase in productivity.
– Sequence of Actions
1. First meeting results in setting of group direction, policies, action plans
2. This is followed by a first phase of inertia
3. A transition takes place exactly at the half-way point
4. This transition initiates major changes
5. A Second phase of inertia follows
6. The groups last meeting results in accelerated activity towards the end of
the deadline
E X H I B I T 9-3
E X H I B I T 9-3

9-10
An
An Alternative
Alternative Model
Model for
for Group
Group Formation
Formation

Thus, the
punctuated
equilibrium model
basically states
that groups exhibit
long periods of
inertia
interspersed with
brief revolutionary
changes triggered
primarily by the
members
awareness of time
and deadlines.

E X H I B I T 9-3
E X H I B I T 9-3

9-11
LO3:
LO3: Group
Group Properties
Properties

9-12
Group
Group Property
Property 1:
1: Roles
Roles
Individuals within a group often have separate, defined roles.
Role:
– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a
given position in a social unit
Role Perception
– An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given
situation.
Role Expectations
– How others believe a person should act in a given situation
– In the workplace, role expectations can be better understood through
the psychological contract.
– Psychological Contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out mutual
expectations of management and employees
Role Conflict
– A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations. In other words, when compliance with one role may
make it difficult to comply with another role.
9-13
Zimbardo’s
Zimbardo’s Prison
Prison Experiment
Experiment
 Faked a prison using student
volunteers
 Randomly assigned to guard and
prisoner roles
 Within six days the experiment
was halted due to concerns
– Guards had dehumanized the
prisoners
Stanford
– Prisoners were subservient University

– Fell into the roles as they

understood them
– No real resistance felt

9-14
Group
Group Property
Property 2:
2: Norms
Norms
 Norms
– Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are
shared by the group’s members. Norms dictate what
members ought to do and ought not to do in certain
circumstances.
 Classes of Norms
– Performance norms - level of acceptable work, level of
acceptable output, level of acceptable tardiness
– Appearance norms - what to wear, when to look busy
– Social arrangement norms – with whom to eat lunch, with
whom to form off job friendships etc.
– Allocation of resources norms - distribution and assignments
of jobs and material
9-15
Group
Group Norms
Norms and
and the
the Hawthorne
Hawthorne Studies
Studies
A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western Electric
Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago between 1924 and 1932
• Physical environment
and productivity
1.Illumination
Research Conclusions
2.assembly-test-room
– Worker behavior and sentiments were closelyincentive
• Wage related. plan
– Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting
individual behavior.
– Group standards (norms) were highly effective in establishing
individual worker output – don’t be a rate buster, don’t be a
chiseler, don’t be a squealer et.c
– Money was less a factor in determining worker output than
were group standards, sentiments, and security.

9-16
Norms
Norms and
and Behavior
Behavior
 Conformity
– Gaining acceptance by the group adjusting one’s behavior to align
with the norms of the group. There is substantial empirical
evidence that shows that individuals often alter their behavior to
conform to group norms. The tendency to conform is more evident
in the cases where individuals view a group to be important to
them and value membership in that group (reference group).
 Asch Studies
– Demonstrated the power of conformance
– Culture-based and declining in importance

9-17
Defying
Defying Norms:
Norms: Deviant
Deviant Workplace
Workplace Behavior
Behavior
 Deviant Workplace Behavior
– Also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility
– Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational
norms and, in doing so, threatens the well-being of the
organization

9-18
Group
Group Influence
Influence on
on Deviant
Deviant Behavior
Behavior

– Group norms can influence the presence of deviant behavior

– Simply belonging to a group increases the likelihood of deviance
– Being in a group allows individuals to hide – creates a false
sense of confidence that they won’t be caught

9-19
Group
Group Property
Property 3:
3: Status
Status
A socially defined position or rank given to groups or
group members by others – it differentiates group
members
– Important factor in understanding behavior
– Significant motivator

Status Characteristics Theory

– Status derived from one of three sources:
• Power a person has over others
• Ability to contribute to group goals
• Personal characteristics

9-20
Status
Status Effects
Effects
 On Norms and Conformity
– High-status members are less restrained by norms and pressure to conform
– Some level of deviance is allowed to high-status members so long as it
doesn’t affect group goal achievement
 On Group Interaction
– High-status members are more assertive
– They speak out more, criticize others more, state more commands and
interrupt others more.
– Large status differences limit diversity of ideas and creativity
 On Equity
– It is important for group members to feel that status hierarchy within group
is equitable.
– If status is perceived to be inequitable, it will result in various forms of
corrective behavior and negative outcomes such as fall in performance,
turnover in group, intra-group conflict.
– Status related conflict is more evident in heterogeneous groups.

9-21
Group
Group Property
Property 4:
4: Size
Size
 Group size affects behavior
 Size:
– Twelve or more members is a “large” group
– Seven or fewer is a “small” group
 Best use of a group:
Attribute Small Large
Speed X
Individual Performance X
Problem Solving X
Diverse Input X
Fact-finding Goals X
Overall Performance X

9-22
Issues
Issues with
with Group
Group Size
Size
 Social Loafing
– The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when
working collectively than when working individually
– Ringelmann’s Rope Pull experiment: greater levels of output
but with diminishing returns as group size increases
– Caused by either equity concerns or a diffusion of
responsibility (free riders)
 Managerial Implications
– Prevent social loafing by:
• Setting group goals
• Increase intergroup competition
• Use peer evaluation
• Select members high on motivation and team working
capability
• Distribute group rewards based on individual effort
9-23
Group
Group Property
Property 5:
5: Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness
 Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are
motivated to stay in the group.
 Cohesiveness has an impact on the productivity of the group.
However, the performance norms within the group acts as a
moderating variable.

9-24
Group
Group Property
Property 5:
5: Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness

Managerial Implication
– To increase cohesiveness:
• Make the group smaller.
• Encourage agreement with group goals.
• Increase time members spend together.
• Increase group status and admission difficulty.
• Stimulate competition with other groups.
• Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
• Physically isolate the group.

9-25
Group
Group Property
Property 6:
6: Diversity
Diversity
 Diversity refers to the degree to which members of the
group are similar to or different from one another.
 Diversity could be surface level or deep level.
 Diversity appears to increase group conflicts, especially
in the early stages of a groups tenure, which often
lowers group morale and raises dropout rates.
 However, if the initial conflict is overcome, then
diverse groups exhibit more creativity, innovation and
higher performance than less diverse groups.

9-26
 LO4:
LO4:Group
GroupDecision
DecisionMaking
Makingvs.
vs.Individual
Individualdecision
decisionmaking
making
 Strengths of group decision making:
– Offer increased diversity of views and greater creativity
– Generate more complete information and knowledge
– Increased acceptance of decisions
– Generally more accurate (but not as accurate as the most accurate group
member)
 Weaknesses of group decision making:
– Time-consuming activity
– Conformity pressures in the group
– Discussions can be dominated by a few members
– A situation of ambiguous responsibility

 So, group decisions are more effective as they tend to be more accurate, creative
and acceptable than individual decisions. However, they are more time
consuming and hence less efficient compared to individual decisions. Managers
should prefer group decision making only if the gain from the enhanced
effectiveness surpasses the loss from the lost efficiency.
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Group
Group Decision
Decision Making
Making Phenomena
Phenomena
 Groupthink
– Situations where group pressures for conformity deter the
group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or
unpopular views.
– Hinders performance
 Groupshift
– When discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a
solution, group members tend to exaggerate the initial
positions that they hold. This causes a shift to more
conservative or more risky behavior.
• Diffusion of responsibility is believed to cause this
phenomenon

9-28
Groupthink
Groupthink
 Symptoms:
– Group members rationalize any resistance to the
assumptions they have made
– Members apply direct pressures on those who express
doubts about shared views or who question the alternative
favored by the majority
– Members who have doubts or differing points of view keep
silent about misgivings
– There appears to be an illusion of unanimity
 Minimize Groupthink by:
– Reduce the size of the group to 10 or less
– Encourage group leaders to be impartial
– Appoint a “devil’s advocate”

9-29
Group
Group Decision-making
Decision-making Techniques
Techniques
The most common form of group decision making takes place in interacting
groups where members meet face-to-face and rely on verbal and nonverbal
communication to arrive at a decision. There are 3 techniques that reduce the
limitations of the traditional interacting groups.
Brainstorming
– An idea-generating process designed to overcome pressure for
conformity by encouraging any and all alternatives while withholding
criticism.
– It has been seen that number of ideas generated in brainstorming
sessions is limited due to “production blocking”
Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
– Works by restricting discussion during the decision-making process
– Members are physically present but operate independently
Electronic Meeting
– Uses computers to hold large meetings of up to 50 people, submit,
critique and rank decisions. Allows brutal honesty.
9-30
 Evaluating
Evaluating Group
Group Effectiveness
Effectiveness
Type of Group
Brain-
Effectiveness Criteria Interacting Nominal Electronic
storming
Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High
Social Pressure High Low Moderate Low
Money Costs Low Low Low High
Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Task Orientation Low High High High
Potential for Interpersonal
High Low Moderate Moderate
Conflict
Commitment to Solution High N/A Moderate Moderate
Development of Group
High High Moderate Low
Cohesiveness

9-31
~The End~
9-32