Site Analysis - Lecture One - SHAPING THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT - Fall 2020

1 PART I CONTEXT AND APPROACH
CHAPTER 1 SHAPING THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Site Analysis: Informing Context-Sensitive and

Sustainable Site Planning and Design
CONTENTS
2
Introduction
Toward Sustainable Built Environments
The Power of Place, the Role of Design
Site-Planning Process
Knowledge, Skills, and Values
Conclusion
1.1 INTRODUCTION
3
James A. Lagro, Jr.

Cornell University
Ph.D., Natural Resource Policy and
Planning, 1991
M.L.A., Landscape Architecture, 1982
B.S., Ornamental Horticulture, 1978
Jim LaGro joined the faculty of the
University of Wisconsin-Madison in
1990
LaGro was Chair of the Department of
Urban and Regional Planning from 2002
to 2008.
 The first chapter addresses important design goals

that can help shape better, and more sustainable,
built environments.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
4
 About 82 percent of the 312 million U.S. residents—and 50 percent

of the planet’s 7 billion inhabitants—now live in urbanized areas
(United Nations, 2010).
 Cities and their suburbs today import vast quantities of both raw
and processed resources (for example, energy, water, food) and they
export—often to rural areas—massive quantities of wastes (for
example, plastics, paper, metals).
1.1 INTRODUCTION
5
 Yet, the global economy—with its 12,000-mile supply chains—

increases international dependencies and, potentially reduces the
resilience of communities to distant political disturbances and
natural disasters (for example, Japan’s 2011 earthquake and
tsunami).
 Sustainability is a global challenge requiring context-specific
changes in the structure and function of our built environments.
 Urban population growth heightens the need for comprehensive
interdisciplinary solutions to this contemporary challenge.
Click icon to add picture
1.2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

7
Advances in extensive sprawl- information-

telecommuni transportatio inducing based
cations n networks land use economy
technologies regulations
Advances in telecommunications technologies, combined with extensive highway networks and sprawl-inducing land
use regulations and subsidies, have greatly loosened the geographic constraints on population distribution and land
development spatial patterns. continue to loosen the geographic constraints on land development spatial patterns.
1.2 Ecosystem Services
8
 Ecosystem services support human civilization by providing a

broad range of “goods and services.”
Production Regulation Carrier Information

• Oxygen • Storage and • Space for • Aesthetic
• Water recycling of settlements resources
• Food and fiber organic matter • Space for • Historic
• Fuel and • Decomposition agriculture (heritage)
energy and recycling • Space for information
• Medicinal of human recreation • Scientific and
resources waste educational
• Regulation of information
local and
9
 The World Resources Institute (WRI) tracks global environmental

trends, and the following findings—among many others—reinforce
the global sustainability imperative:
 Tropical forests are shrinking, and the rates of plant and animal species extinction are
increasing.
 Groundwater tables are falling as water demand exceeds aquifer recharge rates, and
groundwater continues to be contaminated with pesticides and other contaminants.
 Global climate change and warming are occurring, and the sea level is projected to rise by
as much as 3 feet (0.91 meter) by 2100.
10
 indicators reveal that human activities are degrading the environment and
imposing serious impacts on the earth’s capacity to sustain life:
& Tropical New deserts Lakes are Groundwater Rates of plant Global
forests are are formed dying or continues to and animal climate
shrinking annually drying up> be species change and
contaminated extinction are warming
with increasing
pesticides
and other
contaminants
1.2 Ecosystem Services
11
hurricanes, floods, and other natural hazards increasingly threaten human health, safety, and welfare.
The really big catastrophes are getting large and will continue to get larger, partly because of
things we’ve done in the past to reduce risk.
There are, in fact, practical limits to growth, and some locations are far more suitable for
development than others.
loss of life and property from natural hazards can be avoided, or at least minimized, if the
development of the built environment respects nature’s patterns and processes.
1.3 PLACE-BASED STEWARDSHIP

13
 The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987, p.

40) suggests that
“sustainable development seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of
the present without compromising the ability of those to meet
those of the future.”
 Concern over climate change, in particular, has precipitated advances
in “sustainability science”—which seeks to understand the complex
dynamics of interconnected human and environmental systems.
 Actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (climate mitigation) and
increase cities’ resilience to extreme weather events (climate
adaptation) are applications of sustainability science.
14
Ecosystem services support a hierarchy of

human needs.
15
 sustainability is :
‘‘meeting the needs of current and future
generations through integration of
environmental protection, social
advancement, and economic prosperity.’’
the United Nations Environment Program (2003)
 A set of environmental, economic and social
conditions in which all of society has the
capacity and opportunity to maintain and
improve its quality of life indefinitely
without degrading the quantity, quality or
availability of natural, economic, and social
resources.
16
 Site sustainability is :
 The ASLA’s Sustainable Sites Initiative
defines “site sustainability” as design,
construction, operations and maintenance
practices that meet the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
http://www.sustainablesites.org/
17
 Communities aspiring to become more prosperous, livable—and sustainable—

are taking steps to retrofit their built environments in several important ways.
 “Smart Growth,” “New Urbanism,” and “sustainable design” are three related
development paradigms that focus attention on the physical configuration, or
design, of the built environment.
 Key attributes are the following:
 Mixed and integrated uses (i.e., diverse housing, shops, workplaces, schools, parks, and
civic facilities encompassing interconnected indoor and outdoor environments)
 Clustered, compact buildings (i.e., architecture that enriches public open spaces, especially
streetscapes, and creates neighborhoods and urban districts with a strong sense of place)
 Open space systems (i.e., connected natural areas and other outdoor places that provide
linear recreational opportunities)
 Transportation networks (i.e., integrated systems safely serving pedestrians, bicycle riders,
public transit, and automobiles
18
 citizens agreed to a set of community sustainability principles that addressed both the
natural and cultural environments. These include:
1- Minimize harm to the natural environment by recognizing that growth is ultimately
limited by the environment’s carrying capacity.
2- Respect other life forms and support biodiversity.
3- Use renewable and reliable sources of energy and foster activities that use materials in
continuous cycles.
4- Do not compromise the sustainability of other communities (a geographic perspective)
or the sustainability of future generations (a temporal perspective).
5- Value cultural diversity,
6- employs ecological decision making
7- makes decisions and plans in a balanced, open, and flexible manner that includes the
perspectives from the community’s social, health, economic, and environmental
sectors;
8- has shared values within the community (promoted through sustainability education)and makes
the best use of local efforts and resources (nurtures solutions at the local level).
community sustainability principles :
19
1- minimizes harm to the natural environment, recognizes that

growth occurs within some limits, and is ultimately limited by
the environment’s carrying capacity;
2- respects other life forms and supports biodiversity;
3- uses renewable and reliable sources of energy and fosters

activities that use materials in continuous cycles;
4- does not compromise either the sustainability of other

communities by its activities(a geographic perspective) or the
sustainability of future generations (a temporalperspective);
community sustainability principles :
20
5- values cultural diversity.
6- employs ecological decision making (for example , integration of

environmental criteriainto all municipal government, business, and
personal decision-making processes);
7- makes decisions and plans in a balanced, open, and flexible

manner that includes the perspectives from the community’s social,
health, economic, and environmental sectors;
8- has shared values within the community (promoted through

sustainability education)and makes the best use of local efforts and
resources (nurtures solutions at the local level).
21
Community Sustainability:
 Public policy plays a significant role in shaping the built environment
 zoning codes in the United States emerged in the early twentieth century to
protect public health, safety, and welfare .
 These land use controls were effective in separating new residential areas from
polluting industries and ensuring that new housing construction met basic health
and safety standards.
 Some land use combinations, such as heavy industry and housing, are inherently
incompatible. zoning codes routinely separate residential development from
shops, restaurants, and other commercial uses, often with detrimental
consequences for the built environment and public health.
 This approach to land use planning In combination with transportation policy and
planning decisions, many zoning codes in the United States not only encourage
sprawl but also inhibit more sustainable forms of development.
22
 The conservation of natural and cultural resources is a fundamental site
planning concern.
 According to Arendt (1999), there are nine fundamental types of natural
and cultural resources that should be inventoried at the community level:
Wetlands and Floodways Moderate and Groundwater Woodlands

wetland and steep slopes resources and
buffers floodplains aquifer
recharge
areas
23
Productive Significant Historic, Scenic view

farmland wildlife habitats archaeological, sheds from
and cultural public roads
features
24
25
Planning Better Communities

 these natural and cultural resources should be primary
determinants of urban form, from the regional to the site

scale.
26
 In the context of the built environment, real-world problem

solving involves the “stewardship of place”.
 The arrangement of streets and buildings involves “design
decisions” that—for better or worse—shape the built environment.
 Some designs, however, are far better than others, and the solution
to contemporary placelessness is often simply better design.
 Stewardship depends not only on analyzing what is or has been,
but also on imagining what could be, i.e., futures scenarios.
 Net-zero energy buildings—and other aspirational goals for
buildings as well as sites, communities, and regions—can lead to
important policy, design, and technological breakthroughs.
27
 The average citizen may think that design excellence is

a frill or that it simply costs too much.
 But there are many reasons to justify the expense of
investing in skilled planning and design.
28
 In Designing the City:

A Guide for Advocates and Public Officials, mayors, real estate
developers, and others who were interviewed expressed the
following opinions about the quality of design in the built
environment:
 “Good design promotes public health, safety, and welfare.”
 “Good design makes a city work better, not just look better.”
 “Good design attracts people to a city, and those people help pay for
essentials that help instill pride and satisfaction in what citizens get for
their taxes.”
 “Well-designed [real estate] products will succeed in tight markets
where poorly designed products will not.”
29
 design excellence enhances community livability and

sustainability, which benefits society, the economy, and
the environment:
1.4 EVIDENCE-BASED DESIGN

31
 Communities change incrementally through a continual

process of land development and redevelopment, largely
through private sector real estate projects at the site scale.
 The development of unsuitable sites—or poorly designed
development on otherwise suitable sites—can negatively
affect a broad array of natural and cultural resources
 On-site impacts, for example, may diminish visual
quality and reduce native plant and wildlife biodiversity.
Off-site impacts may include traffic congestion, flooding,
or pollution of local surface waters
32
 Each site’s carrying capacity is a measure of the type

and intensity of development that can be supported
without imposing detrimental effects on society, the
economy, or the environment.
Suitability for sustainable

development is determined by
existing patterns of natural and
cultural resources, as well as by the
built environment’s physical
attributes.
33
Suitability for sustainable development is determined by existing patterns of natural

and cultural resources, as well as by the built environment’s physical attributes.
1.4.1 Smart Growth
34
 Making the built environment more sustainable and

livable—through smarter land use planning and
policymaking—creates more transportation options,
more housing choices, and more walkable, mixed-use
neighborhoods.
 Smart Growth principles can guide both public and
private sector decision making. These goals for shaping
—and reshaping—the built environment are
summarized below.
1.4.1 Smart Growth
35
Smart Growth Planning Goals

• Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of
place Smart Growth Process Goals
• Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical • Make development decisions
environmental areas
• Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities predictable, fair, and cost effective
• Mix land uses
• Foster compact building design • Encourage community and stakeholder
• Create a range of housing opportunities and choices
• Create walkable neighborhoods
collaboration in development decisions
• Provide a variety of transportation choices
36
1.4.2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
37
 LEED promotes sustainability by focusing on building

and site performance in five areas affecting human and
environmental health:
 Sustainable site development
 Water savings
 Energy efficiency
 Materials selection
 Indoor environmental quality
1.4.2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
38
 Green buildings are healthy places, in part, because natural daylight, good
air quality, and plants tend to improve health and healing (Ulrich, 1991).
 Green buildings also improve educational outcomes, enhance employee job
satisfaction and productivity, and cost substantially less to operate and
maintain than conventional buildings
 Current LEED guidelines for green construction include the following
areas:
 New commercial and retail construction
 Existing building operations and maintenance
 Multiple buildings and on-campus building projects
 Neighborhood development
 Schools, homes, and healthcare facilities
 Major commercial renovation projects
1.4.3 LEED for Neighborhood Development (ND)
39
 LEED for Neighborhood Development (ND) was created

through a collaboration of the U.S. Green Building Council
(USGBC), the Congress for the New Urbanism, and the
Natural Resources Defense Council.
 This neighborhood rating system integrates the principles of
Smart Growth, traditional neighborhood design, and green
building design. Building and neighborhood performance are
measured in several categories, including two:
 Locations and Linkages
 Sustainable Sites
40
 Locations and linkages :

 The Locations and Linkages credits encourage developers to build
homes away from environmentally sensitive places and to locate them
instead in previously developed and other preferable sites
 Sustainable Sites
 The Sustainable Sites category discourages development on
previously undeveloped land, minimizes a building’s impact on
ecosystems and waterways, and encourages regionally appropriate
landscaping.
 LEED-ND credits reward smart transportation choices, low-impact
stormwater management, and efforts to reduce erosion, light
pollution, the heat island effect, and construction-related pollution.
41
 Locations and linkages :

 The Locations and Linkages credits encourage developers to build
homes away from environmentally sensitive places and to locate them
instead in previously developed and other preferable sites
 Sustainable Sites
 The Sustainable Sites category discourages development on
previously undeveloped land, minimizes a building’s impact on
ecosystems and waterways, and encourages regionally appropriate
landscaping.
 LEED-ND credits reward smart transportation choices, low-impact
stormwater management, and efforts to reduce erosion, light
pollution, the heat island effect, and construction-related pollution.
1.5 SITE-PLANNING PROCESS
43
 Site planning is the art of arranging the external

physical environment to support human behavior. It lies
along the boundaries of architecture, engineering,
landscape architecture, and city planning, and it is
practiced by members of all these professions. Site
plans locate structures and activities in three-
dimensional space and, when appropriate, in time.
—Lynch (1971, pp. 3–4)
44
 Context-sensitive site planning is a multiphase process

for making choices about where to build—and where
not to build.
 It involves location-specific problem solving, based on
a thorough understanding of the site’s cultural, legal,
physical, and ecological milieus
SITE-PLANNING PROCESS
45
46
 The combination of unique site conditions and multiple

project objectives creates a complex design problem
that may have dozens of potentially satisfactory
solutions that meet all of the program’s functional
requirements.
 Yet, some of these solutions are better than others. Poor
site planning often has unintended consequences, such
as pedestrian-vehicle conflicts, human exposure to
natural hazards, or pollution of streams and lakes.
47
 Site-planning projects typically fall into three

categories:
 Projects with no buildings (Projects with no buildings
include parks, greenways, and other recreation areas.
Introducing green infrastructure into the built environment
is an increasingly important percentage of professional site-
planning work).
 Projects with one building
 Projects with two or more buildings
1.5.1 Project Initiation
48
• private individuals
• Partnerships
• Corporations
• nonprofit organizations
• federal, state
• or local governments
Clients
1.5.2 Site Selection and Programming
49
 Land development typically occurs in one of two ways:

 clients have a site and then determine what and when to
build on that site,
 or clients have a set of land use objectives and then find a
site for those uses.
 Across the urban-to-rural continuum, parcels of land
vary broadly in size, shape, character, and context.
 Site selection involves identifying and evaluating
alternative sites and selecting the best site for the
project’s intended uses.
Programming
50
assistance of
Developed by the client alone the
consultants with
programming expertise
Programming project’s objectives.
functional
requirements Client objectives the
market analyses desired uses, special
subsequent analysis proposed activities
user demand features, design styles,
and design allocated for each budgets for various
studies analysis of activity
activities project components, and
relevant precedents spatial relationships maintenance concerns.
Site Selection
51
 Land development typically occurs in one of two ways:

1. clients have a site and choose a program to develop on that site.
2. clients have a program of intended uses and need a site for those
uses.
 Across the urban–rural continuum, parcels of land vary greatly in
size, shape, character, and context.
 Site selection involves identifying and evaluating alternative sites
and selecting the best location for the intended program
1.5.3 Site Inventory
52
 Good site planning requires an understanding of relevant contextual factors or

attributes.
 In some contexts, a single site attribute will determine the suitability—or
feasibility—of the site for a particular use.
 For any combination of program and site, there are always attributes that can be
ignored to make the process more efficient.
 Deciding which attributes to assess and which attributes to ignore depends on at
least four factors:
 Proposed site uses
 Existing on-site and off-site conditions
 Requirements for permits and approvals
 Costs of data collection and analysis
 Collectively, these factors determine the scope of the site assessment, which may
consider a broad variety of physical, biological, and social or cultural factors.
1.5.4 Site Analysis
53
 Information from the site inventory must be integrated and

synthesized to assess the site’s suitability for specific program
objectives
 The site analysis summarizes the site’s suitability for the
programmed uses.
1.5.4 Site Analysis
54
 Site suitability for a specific project is a function of the

site’s assets and liabilities or opportunities and
constraints.
 Site opportunities include:
unique natural or cultural resources that warrant
protection.
 Site constraints include:
chemical contamination from prior commercial or
industrial uses.
 site analysis may assess whether environmental
remediation is needed, what action should be taken to
protect adjacent properties from contamination, and
what buildings and infrastructures can be used or
recycled.
 The site analysis also considers regulatory constraints
1.5.5 Conceptual Design
55
 Concept development, the process of adapting the program to the

site, flows directly from the site analysis.
 Concept plans spatially organize the project’s proposed elements
and on-site improvements . If the program is unrealistic, the design
concept and, potentially, budget estimates should reveal those
deficiencies, resulting either in a revision of the program and
concept, or the selection of a different site.
1.5.5 Conceptual Design
56
 On a concept plan, major program elements and important existing

conditions are drawn diagrammatically.
 Circulation pathways are often portrayed as ‘‘arrows,’’ for
example, and major uses or activity zones are portrayed as
‘‘bubbles.’’
1.5.6 Design Development
57
 The design development process refines, or
spatially articulates diagrammatic elements of
the concept plan.
 design development involves documenting with
plans, sections, elevations, and three-dimensional
perspectives how the plan’s components will
appear and relate to one another functionally.
 Subsequent design iterations define and
articulate the buildings, walls, parking lots,
pathways, and other ‘‘hard’’ and ‘‘soft’’ spaces
within each of the general land use areas.
1.6 PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCY
59
 Several professional licensing and certification exams

assess the knowledge, skills, and values that inform the
practice of competent site planning and design.
 Competency is tested on the professional licensing
exams for architects, landscape architects (CLARB,
2006), and civil engineers (NCEES, 2009) and on the
certification exam for urban planners (AICP, 2011).
 These exams recognize the complexity of site planning
and test for competence in several relevant areas, as
briefly illustrated below, that vary by profession.
60
 Good site planning requires not only a broad set of skills

and knowledge but also the ethics and values to protect
critical environmental areas and create sustainable and
livable places.
 Poor site planning may create a variety of unintended

consequences. A poorly designed site may, for example,
create a vehicle-dominated development that ignores
pedestrian needs. Poor design may also create vehicle
circulation conflicts, increase human exposure to natural
hazards, or degrade environmental quality.
61
 Unique combinations of site and program create design problems

that may have dozens of potentially satisfactory solutions.
 Some of these solutions, however, are better than others.
 A satisfactory solution meets the program’s functional
requirements, while also creating a sustainable and livable place
within the built environment.
62
 The site planning and design process is far from trivial as evidenced
by professional licensing examinations for architects and landscape
architects.
 the Architect Registration Exam (ARE) expects registered
architects to integrate: ‘‘human behavior, historic precedent, and
design theory in the selection of systems, materials, and methods
related to site design and construction.’’
 Landscape architects are expected to develop site or land use plans
that take into consideration the off-site and on-site influences to
development. Landscape architects must consider various codes,
consultant studies, and principles of sustainability when creating a
site design
1.7 CONCLUSION
1.7 CONCLUSION
64
 Land use suitability is not uniformly distributed across the earth’s

surface. Each site has a unique set of physical, biological, and
cultural attributes, and some of these attributes limit the site’s
suitability for certain uses.
 Consequently, a comprehensive understanding of each site and its
context is a necessary precursor to good site planning and design.
 If the site’s existing contextual conditions are poorly understood,
the site’s development may detrimentally impact people, property,
and the environment.
 Or, more commonly, opportunities to maximize the site’s social,
economic, and environmental value will be missed.
sustainable design benefits:
65
 Good Design Makes a Difference.
 Good design that is sustainable can reduce the long-term life-cycle costs
of operating and maintaining buildings, infrastructure, and sites within the
built environment.
- Attract Cons
S
Pedestri
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THE POWER OF PLACE, THE ROLE OF DESIGN
66
 Good Design Makes a Difference.

 Some designs ,however, are far better than others The arrangement
and articulation of streets, buildings, and all other site elements .
 Design professionals, such as architects and landscape architects,
are trained to base these decisions on fundamental design
principles, ethical standards, and a thorough understanding of social
and environmental context.
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1 PART I CONTEXT AND APPROACH

CHAPTER 1 SHAPING THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Site Analysis: Informing Context-Sensitive and

Toward Sustainable Built Environments

The Power of Place, the Role of Design

Knowledge, Skills, and Values

James A. Lagro, Jr.

 The first chapter addresses important design goals

 About 82 percent of the 312 million U.S. residents—and 50 percent

 Yet, the global economy—with its 12,000-mile supply chains—

1.2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Advances in extensive sprawl- information-

 Ecosystem services support human civilization by providing a

Production Regulation Carrier Information

 The World Resources Institute (WRI) tracks global environmental

1.3 PLACE-BASED STEWARDSHIP

 The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987, p.

Ecosystem services support a hierarchy of

 Communities aspiring to become more prosperous, livable—and sustainable—

1- minimizes harm to the natural environment, recognizes that

2- respects other life forms and supports biodiversity;

3- uses renewable and reliable sources of energy and fosters

4- does not compromise either the sustainability of other

5- values cultural diversity.

6- employs ecological decision making (for example , integration of

7- makes decisions and plans in a balanced, open, and flexible

8- has shared values within the community (promoted through

Wetlands and Floodways Moderate and Groundwater Woodlands

Productive Significant Historic, Scenic view

Planning Better Communities

determinants of urban form, from the regional to the site

 In the context of the built environment, real-world problem

 The average citizen may think that design excellence is

 In Designing the City:

 design excellence enhances community livability and

1.4 EVIDENCE-BASED DESIGN

 Communities change incrementally through a continual

 Each site’s carrying capacity is a measure of the type

Suitability for sustainable

Suitability for sustainable development is determined by existing patterns of natural

 Making the built environment more sustainable and

Smart Growth Planning Goals

 LEED promotes sustainability by focusing on building

 LEED for Neighborhood Development (ND) was created

 Locations and linkages :

 Locations and linkages :

 Site planning is the art of arranging the external

 Context-sensitive site planning is a multiphase process

 The combination of unique site conditions and multiple

 Site-planning projects typically fall into three

 Land development typically occurs in one of two ways:

 Land development typically occurs in one of two ways:

 Good site planning requires an understanding of relevant contextual factors or

 Information from the site inventory must be integrated and

 Site suitability for a specific project is a function of the

 Concept development, the process of adapting the program to the

 On a concept plan, major program elements and important existing

 Several professional licensing and certification exams

 Good site planning requires not only a broad set of skills

 Poor site planning may create a variety of unintended

 Unique combinations of site and program create design problems

 Land use suitability is not uniformly distributed across the earth’s