Chapter 1 Material

Basic Psychological Processes

PSYCO 104 B2

James Farley, University of Alberta, Winter 2022

 What is Psychology?

• While it has meant many different things in various times and places, for our purposes,
psychology refers to the scientific study of behaviour and the mind
• Behaviour: Directly observable activity
(e.g. actions, responses, etc.)
• Mind: Internal states and
mental processes (e.g. memory,
problem solving, motivation, etc.)
• People usually assume you’re talking
about clinical psychology if you use
the term ‘psychology’ but it is much
broader than that (see next slide)!

https://www.verywellmind.com/psychology-4014660
 Goals of Psychology

• 1. Describe behaviour and mental processes

• 2. Explain/understand causes of these
behaviours
• 3. Predict behaviours
• 4. Influence/control behaviours under
certain conditions

https://improvedia.com/4-reasons-why-people-fail-to-achieve-their-goals-and-how-to-fix-it/
Flow of Research

• Basic Research: knowledge for it’s own sake (e.g. what does the human ear
do in response to sound waves that allow us to ‘hear’ them)
• Applied Research: solutions to practical problems (e.g. how can our
knowledge of the human ear help us create a device that can help someone
who is losing their hearing?)
• Most common to take results from basic research and fit them into applied
work, though the reverse can also happen
Levels of Analysis
• Three primary levels of causal factors are
addressed in modern psychology:
• Biological level
(e.g. brain processes, genetic influences)
• Psychological level
(e.g. thoughts, feelings, motives)
• Environmental level
(e.g. past/current physical and social
environments)
• Each level provides a different and
complimentary perspective, which allows for
a more complete understanding of whatever
the topic of investigation is
 The Scientific Approach

• The scientific method involves systematically gathering and evaluating

empirical evidence (gained through experience and observation)
• This helps minimize bias and provides a useful framework that can help solve
specific practical problems
• How many of these questions do you think you know the answer to? If you think you
know the answer to one, how confident are you (and what evidence are you basing that
answer on, if any?)
Folk Psychology

• Folk psychology refers to the commonly held

beliefs the average person has about people,
psychological processes, and behaviour
• Similar to the scientific approach, can also rely
on observation (though this may be indirect) and
often draws on ‘anecdotal evidence’
• Can be correct at times but is typically not very
reliable
• How does an approach to understanding
behaviour based on folk psychology compare Though widely believed, are different sides of the
with a scientific one? brain really associated with logic and creativity?
Common Errors of Judgment

• Relying on heuristics (mental shortcuts)

• Failing to consider alternative explanations
• Confirmation bias (selectively looking for evidence that confirms your prior beliefs)

• Taking a scientific approach can help minimize such errors of judgment

Critical Thinking

• Critical thinking is central to the scientific method

• Involves taking an active role in evaluating information you are presented with
Critical Thinking

• When presented with information, ask

yourself:
• What’s the claim?
• Is the source credible?
• What’s the evidence?
• Are there other explanations?
• What’s the appropriate conclusion?
 Jumbled Letters Claim

• Try reading the following example and see if you can understand it

• Appears to illustrate the claim being made

• Is this compelling (i.e. do you ‘buy’ what they’re saying)?
https://english.olympiadsuccess.com/class-8-jumbled-words--fun-time
 Jumbled Letters Claim

• What is the claim?

• Jumbled words can still be easily identified, as long as the first/last letters stay in
place
• We read words as wholes (not individual letters)
• The finding is based on research at Cambridge University
• Who is making the claim?
• Anonymous

https://english.olympiadsuccess.com/class-8-jumbled-words--fun-time
 Jumbled Letters Claim

• What is the strength of the evidence?

• Unsubstantiated claim
• No references whatsoever
• Are there other explanations possible?
• 83% of the words are either unaltered or only have minor transpositions

https://english.olympiadsuccess.com/class-8-jumbled-words--fun-time
 Jumbled Letters Claim

• The example below represents a more difficult to read example

• The original example was chosen to be compelling/convincing (and perhaps was!), but
simply isn’t representative of how difficult it can be to read jumbled words
• What’s the appropriate conclusion?

https://english.olympiadsuccess.com/class-8-jumbled-words--fun-time
 Mind and Body

• Mind-body dualism views the mind as a spiritual entity

• Implies that the mind is not subject to the same physical laws that govern the body and
therefore cannot be studied using traditional scientific methods
• Monism views the mind as a product
of the same physical events that affect
the body (e.g. chemical reactions in
our brain produce emotions, etc.)
• Implies the mind can be studied
from a scientific perspective, just
like the rest of the natural world

https://psychologenie.com/dualism-vs-monism-in-philosophy\
Structuralism

• Structuralism was among the first

scientific approaches taken towards
understanding human behaviour (i.e.
modern psychology)
• Geared towards studying consciousness by
breaking it down into it’s essential
elements, described as sensations
• Similar to the reductionist approach taken
in other sciences (e.g. breaking compounds
down into elements in chemistry)
 Structuralism

• Structuralism relied on analytical introspection (‘looking within’) using trained

experts to understand sensations through description
• Any potential issues with subjectivity?
• Associated with Wilhelm Wundt
(1832-1920), who established the
first psychology lab in Leipzig,
Germany (1879) and Edward
Tichener (1867-1927), who
brought Wundt’s ideas to America

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qXSyCgphF0o
 Functionalism

• Functionalism is concerned with the function and

purpose of behaviour and thought, rather than structure
(‘why’, not ‘what’)
• Emphasizes how mental/behavioural processes help us
survive, rather than simply describing what they are
(i.e. structuralism)
• Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, also
influenced modern evolutionary approaches to
understanding the mind/behaviour
• Associated with William James (1842-1910), who
wrote the first psychology textbook (1890)
rait of William James © Darren McAndrew 2014
Perspectives
• Behaviours and mental processes can be approached from multiple perspectives, which can
serve as guides to understanding by providing history and context for study
• Similar to the idea of multiple levels of analysis, the use of different perspectives can be
complimentary, with each emphasizing different aspects of behaviour and mental processes
 Psychodynamic

• The psychodynamic perspective assumed causes of behaviour can be understood by

looking within an individual, shaped by:
• Unconscious desires/motives
• Unresolved past conflicts
• Expanded study/treatment of psychological disorders
• Associated with Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

http://www.artnews.com/2017/02/01/the-sigmund-freud-collection-at-the-library-of-congress-has-been-digitized/
Behaviourism

• Behaviourism started with the premise that behaviour is

what really matters (and can be studied objectively, unlike
mental events), and therefore should be the focus of research
• Viewed behaviour as a product of the environment
• Emphasized controlling behaviour by altering the
environment
• Behaviour modification therapy
• Associated with James Watson (1978-1958) and BF Skinner
(1904-1990)
Cognitive Behaviourism

• Cognitive behaviourism emphasizes the link between

behaviour and cognition
• Assumes humans are thinking creatures that do more
than just ‘react’ to their environment (i.e. as in the
behaviourist approach)
• e.g. can learn new behaviours by observing actions of
others (Bobo doll experiment)
• While the environment influences us, we can in turn can
also influence the environment
• Associated with Albert Bandura (b. 1925)
 Humanistic

• The humanistic approach emphasizes conscious motives, freedom, choice and self-
actualizing (reaching one’s full potential)

• Associated with Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-4136760
 Gestalt

• The Gestalt perspective is concerned with how

elements of experience are organized into wholes
• ‘The whole is greater than the sum of its parts’
• Mind is studied in terms of large meaningful units
(in contrast to structuralism)
• Focus on perception

Gilbert, 1892
Cognitive

• The cognitive perspective is concerned with the nature of the mind and understanding
how mental processes influence behaviour
• The Cognitive Revolution (1950’s) contributed to a renewed interest in studying
internal, unobservable mental processes
• The ‘computer analogy’ led to new perspectives on the mind as an information
processing system

Processing
(perception,
Sensory (input) Motor (output)
problem solving,
etc.)
 Cognitive Neuroscience

• The cognitive neuroscience perspective relies on physiological measures (typically

related to neural activity, e.g. fMRI) as a compliment to understanding mental
processes using a more traditional cognitive approach

https://www.bmh.manchester.ac.uk/research/domains/neuroscience-mental-health/cognitive/
Sociocultural

• The sociocultural perspective focuses on the range of socially-mediated influences on

behaviour, thoughts and feelings, including (but not limited to):
• Social environments
• Culture
• Socialization
• Social norms
• etc.
Biological

• The biological perspective focuses on various

underlying physiology relevant for understanding
human nature, including:
• Brain structure and function
• Biochemical processes
• Genetic factors
• Associated with Karl Lashley (1890-1958), who
studied how damage to various brain regions
correspond with behavioural changes
• This approach is related to the more modern idea
of ‘localization of function’
Evolutionary

• The evolutionary perspective is concerned with how

behaviour and mental processes evolved
• Associated with Charles Darwin (1809-1882), who wrote
’On the Origin of Species’ (1859)

• The idea of natural selection, outlined in this book,

remains a critical concept that continues to exert a
tremendous influence in modern science