GG 450

Lecture 19
February 26, 2006

Ground Penetrating Radar

Background:

Contrary to popular belief, GPR or

Ground Penetrating/Probing Radar,
is not a new technology. The first
uses were in Austria in 1929, but
the technology was largely
abandoned until the late 1950's
when U.S. Air Force radars were
seeing through ice as planes tried
to land in Greenland, misreading
the altitude and crashing into the
ice.
 This started investigations into the
ability of radar to see into the
subsurface not only for ice sounding
but also mapping subsoil properties
and the water table. GPR systems have
been in commercial use for over 30
years. It is only recently that the
environmental, construction and
utility industries have discovered the
multiple uses and benefits of
performing GPR surveys to gain
forehand knowledge of what's
underground and in walls. GPR surveys
are now being specified into
engineering designs, environmental
Description:

Ground penetrating radar has many

similarities with wave propagation
methods in subsurface imaging for oil
exploration. This analogy has been
used to transfer technology from the
petroleum industry to the geotechnical
arena. The approach does have its
limits, as the physical processes
involved in signal transmission are
very different. Seismic methods use
acoustic waves, radar uses
electromagnetic waves.
Nonetheless, GPR has become one
of the instruments of choice for
many small site investigations
where a metallic object that is
shallowly buried, such as an
underground gasoline storage
tank, must be located. Ground
penetrating radar (GPR) has
established itself as a
successful technique for a wide
range of shallow (< 50 m)
subsurface evaluations.
How does GPR work?

• Ground penetrating radar uses

electromagnetic wave propagation and
scattering to image, locate and quantitatively
identify changes in electrical and magnetic
properties in the ground. It may be
performed from the surface of the earth, in a
borehole or between boreholes, from aircraft
or satellites. It has the highest resolution in
subsurface imaging of any geophysical
method, approaching centimeters under the
right conditions.
A transducer generates a broadband
(10-1000 MHZ) electromagnetic wave
(impulse). A specially directed
antenna emits the pulse into the
ground. As the wave travels through
the ground, it is reflected, deflected
and absorbed by varying degrees of the
material (soil, water) through which
it travels. As the radar reflects off
of materials it ‘echo locates'
materials, or objects, of different
electromagnetic conductivity within a
matrix, for instance, a pipeline,
storage tank, contaminant or re-bar in
a matrix of soil or concrete.
The receiver in the antenna will pick
up the return signal to be processed
by the radar unit. The radar unit will
then plot a mark on a vertical scale
based on the time it took for each
signal to return. The radar unit will
also analyze the characteristic
properties of the waves, mainly the
amplitude. On the same plot, the radar
unit will assign a color to the
vertically-scaled mark based on the
severity of change in the return
signal's amplitude and the emitting
signal's amplitude. This severity of
change in amplitude of the transmitted
The waves reflect off the subsurface
interfaces as if they are mirror-
like. Because of this, the image
produced will not be a direct replica
of the subsurface – sloping
reflectors will appear to slope less
than they really do, and point or
circular reflectors will appear
actual path as
assumed path
hyperbolas.

depth
recorded
reflection
The pulse has to travel through
the substrate before it gets to
the reflector, and again through
the substrate to get to the
receiver. Anything in the
substrate that may block the beam
will affect the data. Because the
beam is a 45° cone, reflectors
angled at greater than 45° cannot
be seen. Objects within the
matrix, such a pipeline or re-bar,
show up quite clearly as
hyperbolas with amplitudes
Because the propagation of
electromagnetic energy at radar
frequencies is controlled by
dielectric properties in geologic
materials, the method is sensitive
to changes in dielectric
permittivity of the bulk material.
The dielectric permittivity of a
material is strongly related to its
resistivity. The higher the
resistivity, the higher the
dielectric permittivity, and the
farther an electro-magnetic wave
will propagate through that material
The bulk dielectric permittivity of a
rock formation is highly dependent
upon the dielectric value of any pore
fluid present, the degree of
saturation, and the porosity. The
presence of water filled pores
increases the bulk dielectric
permittivity from the value
associated with the unsaturated
state. This characteristic allows GPR
to detect the water table under
certain conditions. If pore water is
replaced by organic compounds, which
typically have a dielectric constant
less than water, electromagnetic
Depth of Investigation varies from less than a
meter to over 5,400 meters, depending upon
material properties. Detectability of a
subsurface feature depends upon contrast in
electrical and magnetic properties, and the
geometric relationship with the antenna.
Quantitative interpretation through modeling
can derive from ground penetrating radar
data such information as depth, orientation,
size and shape of buried objects, density and
water content of soils, and much more.
(http://www.g-p-r.com/introduc.htm)
HIGH RESOLUTION REQUIRED?
YES: use high frequencies
DEEP PENETRATION REQUIRED?
YES: use low frequencies
Sander et al. [1992] and Greenhouse et
al. [1993] describe the 1991 Borden
experiment, in which GPR was used,
along with other geophysical
techniques, to monitor a controlled
spill of percholorethylene (PCE), a
dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL).
This study points out the need for
time-differential measurements to
remove background effects to allow the
detection of small dielectric changes.
This technique will be most useful for
monitoring contaminant movement during
remediation efforts.
GPR Data Collection:
In order to generate an "image" of a
buried object , a GPR profile must be
obtained. A GPR profile is generated
when the antenna is moved along the
surface. This can be done by hand, by
vehicle, or even by air. The radar
unit emits and receives reflected
signals up to a thousand times per
second. As a result, not only do the
relative depths and "strengths" of the
targets appear, but the image or shape
of the target is "seen" on the
monitor.
A number of these transect lines need
to be acquired to gain a precise
location of the target in one
direction. The same process must be
done in the perpendicular direction
to get a full picture of where
objects are in the matrix. The
reflected energy pulses are acquired
only in a narrow line directly below
where the transects are taken and the
positions of objects have to be
correlated from line to line. The
data can also be utilized in a 3-D
program to yield a sub-surface
profile of the area surveyed.
An obvious problem with GPR data
acquisition is site accessibility.
Since the GPR antenna has to be moved
over the area to be investigated, the
search area has to be physically
accessible. Heavily wooded sites or
areas containing cars, debris piles,
sharp inclines, etc. all limit the
accessibility of GPR data acquisition.
A good analogy when considering the
accessibility of a GPR investigation
(for most applications) is to use Geo-
Graf's rule of thumb, " The desired
search area has to be clear enough so
that you could push a shopping cart
In addition to the medium through
which the GPR pulse travels, the
frequency of the wave is a
contributing factor in depth of GPR
signal penetration. Typically, within
the range of GPR antenna frequencies,
the lower the frequency of the pulse,
the deeper the signal penetration, but
at the "cost" of data image
resolution. Conversely, the higher the
frequency, the greater the image
resolution, but at the "cost" of
signal penetration.
This is due to the inherent
properties of the Earth, that
typically allow lower-frequency
waves to travel farther within the
subsurface. The type of antenna used
will depend on the particular
targets-of-concern. For instance, in
measuring concrete floor thickness
or rebar spacing, a 900 to 1500 MHz
antenna would provide the best data.
However, if the desired target is a
UST or bed rock layers, a 120 MHz or
80 MHz antenna would be best.
What’s the wavelength of the signal at 100 MHz?
Velocity = distance / time
Wavelength = distance / cycle
Frequency = cycles / time

Wavelength = velocity / frequency

= 3*108 m/sec / 108 cycles/sec = 3 meters
GPR works best in dry coarse-grained
materials like sand and gravel. It
works poorly in moist fine-grained
sediments. Penetration in course
grained sediments may be as much as
20 m and as little as 2 m in fine-
grained materials.
Usually GPR can be used with several
antennae sizes that produce waves of
different frequencies. High frequency
antennas (200 to 400 MHz) produce the
highest resolution images, but penetrate
only to shallow depths because waves are
quickly attenuated. Low frequency (80 MHz)
antennae produce poorer resolution images,
but can penetrate more deeply into the
The Radargram

GPR data are presented as a radargram.

As the antennas are moved across the
surface, the Transmitter radiates
short sharp pulses, and the Receiver
records the echoes. The radar system
constructs amplitude vs. time traces
as the antennas are moved across the
subsurface, very much like a seismic
reflection profile. These traces are
plotted next to each other showing
recorded amplitudes vs. distance along
the profile, and time (depth) into the
ground.
 The resulting radargram appears in the form
distance (horizontal axis) vs. time (vertical
axis). The simplest conversion from time to
depth requires that one know (or estimate)
the velocity of the pulse in the ground.
Typical time-to-depth conversion factors are
given in the next table:
Medium Time-to-Depth
Conversion, (two-way
travel-time)
Air 6.6 nanoseconds/meter
Dry 12 - 20 ns/m
geological
materials
Damp 20-35 ns/m
geological
 APPLICATIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL & ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEYS

mapping extent of contaminant plumes

determining direction of contaminant
migration
locating buried storage tanks
locating buried artifacts, ruins or
treasures
delineating boundaries of ancient
cemeteries and locating burial plots
Mapping gravel and sand deposits,
determining depth and quantifying volumes
Glacial ice thicknesses - in cold ice
bedrock-ice contact can be mapped.
Finding rebar or culverts during highway
Oil & Gas:

Location of pipelines, utility lines,

water and sewer pipes for gas / oil
facility surveys
Assessing depth of sediment cover over
pipeline river crossings and rights of way
Determining depth to bedrock for proposed
pipeline rights of way

Aerial reconnaissance
Survey depths up to 4 meters or more
(depending on soil conditions - see chart)
GPR can be tied to a GPS to yield precise
locations
3-D software allows results to be obtained
with x, y and z coordinates
CIVIL SURVEYS

Accurate location of in-slab:

structural steel (re-bar)
stress cables
electrical and communication
conduits - including PVC, fiber
optics, telephone wiring and other
non-ferrous materials
water and sewer pipes
It is essential to avoid hitting
these features when coring or
drilling through a concrete slab
during construction renovations.
Advantages of GPR
As opposed to other locating techniques that
are capable of detecting only metallic or
conductive utilities and underground targets,
GPR can locate and characterize both metallic
and non-metallic subsurface features. It is
completely nonintrusive, nondestructive and
safe. GPR can be thought of as a Subsurface
Imaging System, similar to sonar used for
underwater applications. With GPR, surface
conditions are not a major factor. Targets can
be "seen" beneath reinforced concrete,
asphalt, gravel, and most other common
surfaces.
High-resolution data in certain cases.
Non-destructive and quiet.
Requires only one or two people for
field work.
Disadvantages of GPR

Equipment is expensive.
Limited penetration depths.
Can be used in only specific
sediment-bedrock terrains.
Requires trained people for data
collection and interpretation.

Post-processing of data requires

sophisticated computer software
Information about dialectric
properties must be known in order to
convert to wave return times to
depths.
Safety and Interference Concerns

During investigations, especially civil

surveys, GPR surveys are often performed
near sensitive electronic equipment or
tenant occupied spaces. To address safety
and interference concerns GPR technology is
quite benign. The energy source is, as the
name implies, Radar, or radio frequency. It
is relatively low power so there are no
deleterious effects from destructive
radiation and no need to do locates after
hours.
The antennas used in civil surveys are fully
shielded to direct all the transmitted
energy into the ground and to eliminate
surface reflection artifacts and radio
The radar signal reflects off of any
objects with a difference in
conductivity so materials such as
plastics or air voids, as well as
steel, can be resolved. Distinguishing
between different materials can only be
done in a relative sense, and because
concrete varies a great deal, a direct
calibration must be done to get
accurate depth measurements. The
reflected signal from 3 mm steel
reinforcement mesh can be more
pronounced than 30 mm PVC conduit.
GPR can accurately resolve objects such
as re-bar, stress cables and conduit in
concrete to a depth of 450 mm depending
on how many other there are in between.