New Generation University College

Center for Excellence

Public Policy Making & Analysis
Course No. 451
Sisay A. (PhD Cand.)

October 2022
1
Course Outline
 Conceptual definitions
 Policy
 Programs
 Projects
 Public Policy
 Projects vs Programs
 Public Policy Making
 Agenda setting
 Public Policy making process
 Analyzing public policy
2
 COURSE OUTLINE

 Public policy-making models/Theories

 Elite Model
 Group Model
 Systems Model
 Institutionalism Model
 Instrumentalism Model
 Rational- choice Model
 Process Model
 Public-choice model
 System’s model
 Garbage Can Model
3
Course Outline
Public Administration
 Pillars of Public Administration
 Dimensions of Public Administration
 Emerging trends in Public Administration
 Development policy
 Development Policy defined
 Development Policy Options
 Development Planning
 Dev’t Planning conceptualization
 Dimensions & levels of dev’t planning
 Rationale for Development Planning
 Strategic Planning
 Public Policy making , analysis experiences from countries of Africa
 Botswana
 Ethiopia
 Global Frameworks for Development Policy
4
Policy defined:
• a principle or a plan to guide decisions, actions and outcomes;
• Policies can be laws, documents, procedures, guiding principles,
statements of intent or working frameworks. (WHO)
• A course of action adopted and pursued by a gov’t, ruler, political
party etc..
• Action or procedure conforming to or considered with reference
of expediency (convenience);
• Is a rational attempt to attain objectives;
• A plan of action…
• A solution to a problem…
 (Webster’s)
5
What is a public policy problem?
 A condition or situation that affects a considerable number of people;
 Dissatisfactions among individuals/groups/ public at large for which relief/solution is needed;
 Has a broad effects---which needs govt’s decisions;
A policy can be:
Public/gov’t:
 Foreign

 Domestic

Types of Public Policies

Distribution
 Distributive policy;
 Redistributive policy;
 Regulatory.
Extent of codification:
 Constitutional policy;
 Federal/State/statue policy;
 Regulatory
 Formal records of standards/procedures operating;
 Patterned behaviors;
6
 Subtle changes..
Geography:
 Local;
 Sub-regional;
 Regional;
 National;
 Continental;
 Global…
Division of power:
 Political;
 Executive;
 Administrative..
Some public policy areas:
 Economic policy;
 Education policy;
 Health-care policy;
 Energy policy;
 Foreign policy;
 Social policy;
 Environmental policy;
 Transport policy
7
Who makes a policy?
 Parliament;

 Congress;

 the president;

 the bureaucracy.

Who influences a policy?

 Interest groups;

 Political elites;

 The general public/public at large/citizens;

 States & local gov’ts

 The mass media.

8
What is Public Policy?
 Public policy refers to the policy of a government. (WHO)
 A course of action created and or enacted typically by a
government in response to public, real- world problems;
 Attempt by a government to address a public issue;
 Course of action or inaction taken by governmental entities with
regard to a particular issue or set of issues;
 All the things a gov’t decides to do;
 A statement of arguments rationalizing a course of actions of a
gov’t;
 System of law, regulatory measures, courses of action & funding
priorities concerning with public issues or matter;
 Political, managerial, financial & administrative mechanism
arranged to reach explicit goals;
9
What is Public Policy?
 Purposive course of action that is consistently followed
in dealing with a problem (Anderson);
 Set of interrelated decision concerning the selection of
goals and the means of achieving them (Jenkins &
Smith);
 Political decisions for implementing problems to achieve
societal goals (Cochran & Malone, 1995);
 In totality, PP is a a sum of public (gov’t) activities
affecting the public/citizens at large;
 The sum of Public policy is nearly endless…
 Effects (inputs, outputs, outcomes, impacts)
10
Public policy making approaches:
 Top-down;
 Bottom-up
 Hybrid
Levels/scales of Public policy-making:
 Micro-level---focuses on individual problems & its solutions;
 Meso level---focuses on political processes & involves
stakeholders;
 Macro-level…focuses on system and context, structural
nature in problem interpretation.

11
What is a project?
 Is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service.
 (key terms…temporary, unique);
 Projects born when need is identified by the customer…and dies when mission
accomplished;
 Project life-cycles vary in length, from a few weeks to several years;
 A one-off operation, that has certain objectives and required to be met within
stipulated time.
What is a Program?
 A project refers to the temporary activity, which is undertaken to create a distinct
service, that has certain objectives, where as a program implies a set of projects
which are linked to one another, in a sequential manner to attain the combined
benefits.
 Is a policy delivery tool;
 Budget is sharply allocated;
 Timing and target population are defined; 12
Program structure & life-cycle:
 Description of current situation;
 Strategies and priorities;
 Financial tables;
 Partnership;
 Implementation strategies;
 Responsible body;

13
Project vs program
 Projects are short-term while programs are longer;

 Projects focus on specific deliverables i.e products or

services while programs focus on benefits received;

 Projects focus on single objectives, while programs focus on

multiple objectives;
 Projects are technical in nature while programs are strategic

in nature;
 Projects focus on outputs while programs aim is an outcome;

 Projects success can be measured in products/services

quality, timeliness, effectiveness, compliance & degree of

customer satisfaction while programs success is measured
by the extent to quality, while program cost meets out the
needs & benefits for which it was customer conducted.

14
Three parts of public-policy-making
Problem:
 Issue that needs to be addressed;
Players
 Individuals, groups that is influential in forming a plan to address the
problem in question;
Policy
 Finalized course of action decided upon by the gov’t-participated by every
corner of a society.
Basic features of a project:
 It has a purpose;
 It is unique;
 It is time-bounded;
 It is undertaken by a team;
 It is dynamic in nature;
 Specific objective linked to a policy, program;
 Is part of a program;
15
 Is integrated in a specific policy.
Project life cycle:
 Identification;
 Formulation;
 Implementation;
 M&Evaluation.

16
A good public policy:
• Has public support;
• Public/stakeholders participation;
• Just/equitable;
• Are backed by solid analysis- 50% problem
identification;
• Are relevant;
• Can be implemented;
• Results are monitored.

17
Why follow Public policy-making process?
 A well formulated problem is a problem half solved;

 To learn how to look at a problem from multiple perspectives for

achieving the best problem defined and possible (feasible)
solution;
Why Problem Analysis?
 Analyze retrospectively and prospectively;

 Whether or not a new policy is needed;

 If a policy exists, whether or not it needs to be modified;

 Compare with others in similar situations;

 Assess implications;

 Assess synergy with other policies;

 Explore stages of policy development.

18
Steps in Policy Analysis:
1) define the problem,
 (2) assemble evidence,

 (3) select criteria for making the decision,

 (4) construct alternatives,

 (5) predict the outcome of each alternative,

 (6) confront the tradeoffs,

 (7) make recommendations/propose

solutions to the problem.

Eugene Bardach
19
 Steps in Policy Analysis:
 State the policy rationale, or the goal of the policy;

 explicitly state the assumptions used in the

analysis;
 evaluate alternatives, including different program
sizes, program methods, and public sector
involvement;
 identify and measure benefits and costs, and;

 verify results through follow-up & studies.

U.S. Office of Management and Budget

20
Some Policy Analysis Questions:
 Are the total benefits of this policy choice
greater than the total costs?
 Does this policy offer greater net benefits
(total benefits – total costs) than another
alternative?
 How large a budget is required for this policy?

21
POLICY ANALYSIS TOOLS

SWOT ANALYSIS
 SWOT analysis is a framework for identifying

and analyzing an organization's strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
 These words make up the SWOT acronym. The

primary goal of SWOT analysis is to increase

awareness of the factors that go into making a
business decision or establishing a business
strategy.
22
SWOT ANALYSIS

23
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

 A stakeholder analysis is a process of identifying people

before the project begins; grouping them according to their
levels of participation, interest, and influence in the project;
and determining how best to involve and communicate
each of these stakeholder groups throughout.
 Stakeholder mapping is part of stakeholder analysis and is
an exercise where you identify project stakeholders, which
can be individuals or organizations, and then categorize
these stakeholders to help guide your engagement strategy.

24
PESTLE ANALYSIS
 Studies the key external factors (Political,

Economic, Sociological, Technological, Legal

and Environmental) that influence an
organization.
 It can be used in a range of different scenarios,

and can guide people professionals, policy

makers and senior managers in strategic decision-
making.

25
26
Problem tree analysis
 (also called Situational analysis or just Problem analysis) helps to find
solutions by mapping out the anatomy of cause and effect around an issue
in a similar way to a Mind map, but with more structure.
 There are three stages in this analytic process:
 the identification of the negative aspects of an existing situation with their “causes and
effects” in a problem tree,
 the inversion of the problems into objectives leading into an objective tree, and
 the decision of the scope of the project in an analysis
 Problem/solution tree analysis is a tool that can be used to help sustainability
and project officers to consider the potential solutions that are within their
power to implement in order to address key challenges, and to identify
opportunities that can deliver multiple social, environmental and economic
benefits
27
PROBLEM TREE ANALYSIS

28
PROBLEM TREE

29
30
 Activity: Problem Tree: Investigating Causes
and Effects
 Begin at the center of the tree with the problem.
 Then go to the roots, which is the investigation of the
causes.
 And finally to the leaves, which explore the effects.

31
 Problem: The issue that is being examined. Because it
is not as apparent as the effects, the core problem
itself sometimes takes longer to identify.
 Causes: Issues, situations, factors or phenomena that
have led to the problem. Prompt exploration of causes
by asking, “Why does the problem exist?”
 Effects: Results created by the problem. “effects of
effects.” At first, this part of the issue may appear to
be easy to tackle, but without addressing the root
cause, only addressing the effects is like trimming
leaves and branches—they grow back quickly.
32
 EXERCISE
 Problem: The problem is that I am late to school;
 Cause: Some potential causes of this problem
include perhaps I did not hear my alarm or got
distracted as I was getting ready;
 Effect: The effects of my lateness are that I would
miss instruction, fall behind, and feel frustrated,
etc.

33
 Fishbone Analysis
 Typically used for root cause analysis, a fishbone diagram
combines the practice of brainstorming with a type of mind
map template.
 Fishbone diagram is a visualization tool for categorizing the
potential causes of a problem. This tool is used in order to
identify a problem's root causes.
 Fishbone diagram helps team members visually diagram a
problem or condition's root causes, allowing them to truly
diagnose the problem rather than focusing on symptoms.
 It allows policy-makers to separate a problem's content from
its history, and allows for consensus around the problem and
its causes. 34
35
36
 THE POLICY-MAKING CYCLE

REVIEW POLICY AGENDA SETTING

Report Identify problem

Evaluate Research

Set agenda
Monitor

IMPLEMENTATION FORMULATION

Enforce policy Develop options and strategies

Implement policy Negotiate

Formulate policy
37

Stages of the policy cycle

(Source: http://www.geostrategies.com/images/policycycle.jpg)
38
• Policy-making is complex, highly political and a
continual process.
• It can stretch over long periods of time and usually
involves many actors and interests, which may vary
over the course of time.
• It is almost never straight forward and often feels
more like a tangled web or an ongoing ‘juggling’
process.
• Often, the completion of one stage does not
guarantee movement to the next. Nor is progress in
one stage dependent on completion of all tasks in
the previous stage.
39
Step one- problem identification:
• Gov’t must perceive that problem exists;
• What is the problem or issue?
• What will the role of gov’t be?
• Issues that comes to the gov’t from:
 Interest groups;
 CSOs;
 Court cases;
 Members of parliament/congress/HPRs;
 Bureaucratic agencies;
 Individual citizens.
40
Step Two- Agenda setting
 Is the process by which problems come to the
attention of governments;
 identify the problem, conduct the research, set
agenda;
 Gov’t begins to give serious consideration…who
are adversely affected by the problem?;
 Problems that attract attention of policy makers;
 A crisis event, a mass movement, or an influential
leader may get an item on the policy agenda;
 Prioritization and formulation of issues the policy-
makers have decided to address; 41
 A problem is a situation that produces a human
need, deprivation or dissatisfaction for which relief
is sought such as pollution, inflation, crime,
poverty…;
 Public problems are different from private
problems in either the number of people affected,
the number of people directly or indirectly
involved, and the amount of resources and
solutions required;

42
Step Three- Policy formulation
 develop policy options and strategies, negotiate, formulate policy;
 Examining and shaping of the solutions to problems;
 Getting gov’t to consider solutions;
 Indication which problems need intervention;
 What are the proposed solutions?
 Propose solutions-solutions may be put forward by a chief executive, a
legislator, an agency, interest groups, think tanks;
 Is how policies are formulated within the gov’t.
Step four- Policy Adoption
 Is the process of legitimization;
 What course of action will the gov’t ultimately take?
 Getting gov’t to adopt a solution…in order for a policy to be adopted, a
majority coalition that supports the alternative must be constructed;
 Will it be a new regulation or an executive order?
43
Step five- policy implementation:
 Getting gov’t to apply the solution to the problem;
 How does the gov’t do what it decides to do?;
 Relates to how gov’t put policies in to effect;
 Putting solutions in to effect;
 Formulation of policy implementation parameters, human and
financial resources, administrative structures;
 Policy implementation is implementing and a policy; Public
administrators are the primary implementers of public policy;
 How will new policy applied to real solutions?;
 Synergy/uniformity of equal application at all level of a gov’t.

44
Step six- policy monitoring & evaluation:
 Did it work?
 What are the challenges?
 What positive changes have resulted from the policy?;
 What are the unforeseen problems?
 What have been the unexpected costs;
 To what degree were the objectives of the policy met?
 To what extent was the problem solved?
 Policy review (monitoring, evaluation and reporting).

45
Monitoring:
 Is the systematic and routine collection of information from

projects and programmes for four main purposes;

 To learn from experiences to improve practices and activities in the
future;
 To have internal and external accountability of the resources used and the
results obtained;
 To take informed decisions on the future of the initiative;
 To promote empowerment of beneficiaries of the initiative.
 Is a periodically recurring task already beginning in the planning
stage of a project or programme.
 Monitoring allows results, processes and experiences to be
documented and used as a basis to steer decision-making and
learning processes.
 Monitoring is checking progress against plans. The data acquired
through monitoring is used for evaluation. 46
Evaluation
 Is assessing, as systematically and objectively as possible, a completed
project or programme (or a phase of an ongoing project or programme that
has been completed).
 Evaluations appraise data and information that inform strategic decisions,
thus improving the project or programme in the future.
Evaluations should help to draw conclusions about five main aspects of the
intervention:
 relevance
 effectiveness
 efficiency
 impact
 Sustainability 47
Setting up for continuous learning and improvement:
 MEL provides a way to comprehensively monitor and selectively

evaluate projects and programs in a way that allows for continuous

learning and improvement;
 Monitoring comprehensively …Paying attention to policy, program &

projects objectives, theories of change, implementation plans, and key

performance indicators to illuminate the successes and challenges
grantees face, whether collectively or individually;
 Evaluating selectively…Taking a deeper analytic look at a subset of

policy, programs and projects, chosen for using innovative strategies,

achieving desired outcomes, or operating in a diverse set of contexts.
 Learning continuously …having relevant, timely information as policy,

program, projects initiatives unfold and implementation improvements

are still possible.
 Information gathered in relation to these aspects during the monitoring
48
process provides the basis for the evaluative analysis.
Differences Between Monitoring & Evaluation
 Monitoring and evaluation are important
management tools that are necessary to track the
progress and facilitate decision making for
present and future interventions.
 However, there are lots of differences between

them.
 Some major differences between monitoring and

evaluation are listed below:

49
 Monitoring
 Monitoring is the systematic and
routine collection of information about
the programs/projects activities
 It is ongoing process which is done to
see if things/activities are going on track 
or not i.e. it regularly tracks the
program
 Monitoring is to be done starting from
the initial stage of the projects
 Monitoring is done usually by the
internal members of the team
Evaluation
 Evaluation is the periodic assessment of the
programs/projects activities
It is done on a periodic basis to measure the
success against the objective i.e. it is an in-
depth assessment of the program
 Evaluation is to be done after certain point of
time of the project, usually at the mid of the
project, completion of the project or while
moving from one stage to another stage of the
projects/programs
 Evaluation is done mainly done by the external
members. However, sometimes it may be also
done by internal members of the team or by
both internal and external members in a
combined way
50
 Monitoring
 Monitoring provides information about the
current status and thus helps to take
immediate remedial actions, if necessary
 It focuses on input, activities and output
 Monitoring process includes regular
meetings, interview, monthly and quarterly
reviews etc. Usually quantitative data.
 It has multiple points of data collection
 It gives answer about the present scenario of
the project towards achieving planned
results considering the human resources,
budget, materials, activities and outputs
 Monitoring studies the present information
and experiences of the project
Evaluation
 Evaluation provides recommendations,
information for long term planning and
lessons for organizational growth and
success
 It focuses on outcomes, impacts and
overall goal
 Evaluation process includes intense
data collection, both qualitative and
quantitative
 Data collection is done at intervals only
 It assesses the relevance, impact,
sustainability, effectiveness and
efficiency of the projects
 Evaluation studies the past experience
of the project performance
51
 Monitoring
 Monitoring checks whether the project did
what it said it would do
 Helps to improve project design and
functioning of current project
 Monitoring looks at detail of activities
 It compares the current progress with the
planned progress
 Information obtained from monitoring is
more useful to the
implementation/management team
 Monitoring result is used for informed
actions and decisions
 Answers the question “Are we doing things
right?”
 Regular report and updates about the
project/program act a deliverables here
 Good or effective monitoring does not rely
on evaluation results
 There are few quality checks in monitoring
 It provides information for evaluation
Evaluation
 Evaluation checks whether what the project did had the
impact that it intended
 Helps to improve project design of future projects
 Evaluation does not look at detail of activities but rather
looks at a bigger picture
 It looks at the achievement of the programs along with
both positive/negative, intended/unintended effects
 Information obtained from evaluation is useful to all the
stakeholders
 Evaluation result is used for planning of new programs
and interventions
 Answers the question “Are we doing right thing?”
 Reports with recommendations and lessons act as a
deliverable here
 Good or effective evaluation relies to some extent on
good monitoring
 There are many quality checks in evaluation
 It provides information for proper planning 52
Things to keep in mind about policy-making processes:
 Policy is complex, takes place on multiple levels,
national, state, local…;
 Public policies are constantly changing, reshaped,
modified, changed, rejected for new policies;
 Public policies must be inferred from actions and behavior
of many gov’t agencies and officials involved over time;
 Policy is a process, not something that can be determined
by a single event or decision;
 There will be winners and losers in policy making
process.
53
INPUTS, ACTIVITIES, OUTPUTS, OUTCOMES AND IMPACT

Inputs
 Inputs are very often confused to be synonymous with

activities. However, these terms are not interchangeable.

Inputs, in simple terms, are those things that we use in
the project to implement it.
 For example, in any project, inputs would include things

like human resource (personnel), finances in the form of

money, machinery such a vehicles, and equipment such as
public address systems among others. Inputs ensure that
it is possible to deliver the intended results of a project.

54
Activities
 Activities on the other hand are actions

associated with delivering project goals. In other

words, they are what the personnel/employees
do in order to achieve the aims of the project.
 In a HIV and AIDS project, for example, activities

would include things such as conducting

community meetings to sensitize the public on
prevention measures, installing condom dispensers
at hot-spots, collecting periodic data to monitor
project progress among others.
55
Outputs
 These are the first level of results associated with a project.

Often confused with “activities”, outputs are the direct

immediate term results associated with a project. In other
words, they are usually what the project has achieved in the
short term. An easy way to think about outputs is to quantify
the project activities that have a direct link on the project goal.
 For example, project outputs in a HIV and AIDS project would

be: the number of community awareness meetings that were

done, the number of condom dispensers installed, number of
HIV and AIDS infected persons referred for ARTs among
others.

56
Outcome:
 This is the second level of results associated with a project

and refers to the medium term consequences of the

project. Outcomes usually relate to the project goal or aim.
 For example, in a safe water project, an outcome would be

“the percentage of households that are using chlorinated

drinking water”.
 Another outcome could be “the percentage of children

suffering from diarrhea.” Nevertheless, an important point

to note is that, outcomes should clearly link to project goals.

57
Impact:
 It is the third level of project results, and is the long term

consequence of a project. Most often than not, it is very difficult

to ascertain the exclusive impact of a project since several other
projects, not similar in nature can lead to the same impact.
 An example of an impact would be reduced poverty rates, reduced

child mortality rates among others. In the case of the Safe Water
project, an increase in the number of households using treated
water would directly impact on fewer cases of people suffering
from diarrhea, meaning that there will be a reduced number of lost
man-hours. This has a direct impact on poverty reduction.
 Also, the number of children suffering from diarrhea may reduce,

meaning that the cases of child deaths are reduced.

58
Key Termnologies in PME (Planning, Monitoring & Evaluation)
 Monitoring and evaluation (often called M&E ) is a
combination of data collection and analysis (monitoring) and
assessing to what extent a program or intervention has, or has
not, met its objectives (evaluation).
 A Target states where you want to reach, A baseline identifies
where you are today, A baseline in project management is a
clearly defined starting point for your project plan. It is a fixed
reference point to measure and compare your project’s progress
against.
 This allows you to assess the performance of your project
over time.
59
 KRA is Key Result Area or also known as the Key Responsibility Area
and KPI is Key Performance Indicators. We will share the key
performance indicators for employees, and the difference between KPI
and KRA, which every business owner should be aware of.
 KPI stands for key performance indicators, while KRA stands for key
results area. The difference between KRA and KPI is in what they
measure. KPIs measure how a system is functioning, while KRAs
measure the results from certain actions within a system.
 RBM Results-based management (RBM) is defined as orienting all
action and use of resources towards achieving clearly defined and
demonstrable results. RBM increases transparency and accountability,
allowing interventions to complement each other and avoid overlap and
waste.
60
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

 Public administration is a field in which leaders serve

communities to advance the common good and effect positive
change;
 Public administration professionals are equipped with skills to
manage at all levels of government (local, state, and federal) as
well as nonprofit organizations;
 Public administration is there for the implementation of
government policies;
 Today public administration is often regarded as including also
some responsibility for determining the policies and programs
of governments. Specifically, it is the planning, organizing,
directing, coordinating, and controlling of government
operations.
61
Public Administration-History
 1800-1950’s Traditional/classical PA;
 1950s to present, modern PA;
 1950s-1960s Dev’t Administration;
 1970s New PA (NPA);
 1980-1990s New Public Management (NPM);
 1990s onwards Reinventing gov’t; PA as governance, SAPs,
the Washington Consensus.

62
Pillars of PA

63
1. Accountability
 As societies became more organized and the control of
resources went into the hands of elected government
structures, the public became dependent on these
governments for services and quality is of importance;
 Important for providing public good in a cost-effective
manner is the main goal of public service. As such
constituents hold public administrators highly accountable;
 Accountability is also a critical pillar that has the power to
make or break governments. It requires ethical decision-
making, equal representation, legitimacy, efficiency,
effectiveness, and responsibility.
64
2. Legitimacy
 For legitimacy to be carried out, public administrators should provide
a conducive environment for adequate public involvement. “There
must also be opportunities for empirical research and decision making
in order to accomplish legitimacy in the state.” Public approval of a
state’s power is the determining factor, whether or not it is legitimate.
This means public administrators draw their power from the public
hence they need to achieve legitimacy which can only happen if they
adhere to the requirements of all the other pillars for they are the
definition of legitimacy.
 According to Dr. Beaumaster, “The person who has the authority and
power is legitimate. Legitimacy Power is derived from authority;
authority is derived from legitimacy; legitimacy is a moral or
normative standing.
 So whenever that person makes an unethical decision, this will reflect
in his power and he may lose it by not following 6 pillars of Public 65
3. Efficiency and Effectiveness
 Emphasis on efficiency and effectiveness evolved from the evil
of the early days of public administration. Here the government
was corrupt and politicians exercised coercive powers in order
to get tasks accomplished;
 This was an attempt to deter g corruption in government which
birthed a positive principle. Efficiency and effectiveness are
criteria to measure performance management in
government;
 “Performance criteria deter corruptive, unethical behaviors in
governance. Too much political control would not enable public
administrations to operate effectively and efficiently; therefore,
agencies would not be able to accomplish the objectives
associated with the other pillars of administration.” 66
4. Responsibility
 When looking at the pillar in the form of Responsibility in the realm of Public
Administration, you will come across a myriad of scholarly emphasis on the
importance and reasons for responsible civil servants. Exploring the topic of
responsibility and its significance in the field of public service reveals a strong
connection between all of the pillars of public administration. The public holds
administrators accountable and they cannot act on their own accord.
 Elected officials determine the course of action of public servants and this fact is
highly relevant to the dichotomy of politics and public administration. In order for
public servants to be responsible, they must also adhere to certain values and
principles which make them efficient, legitimate, and representative of social
equity.
 “The highest duty of public administrators is to embrace a broad set of obligations
and responsibilities that promote the public interest, demonstrate character,
advance justice, and seek the greatest good.”
67
5. Representation
 The fundamental building block around representation is the idea of “the people’s will!” It

becomes a question of, “Who will represent the will of the people”? Do the people elect

them? Representation is not the cornerstone of public administration but it is the cornerstone

of the entire government system. So the people chose who is going to be responsible and

accountable for the country and them. All democratic power that governments yield also

comes from the people. So without people, the government has no power.

6. Ethics
 To conclude ethical conduct is a prerequisite in any field and public administration can not

afford to be an exception. Dealing with the public also calls for natural goodness and morals

that can translate into intangible ethics. Understanding that being in public service places the
68
public in a position of the master which can test your ethics.
TRENDS AND ISSUES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:

 Increased Digital Governance

 Building a more digitally-skilled staff;
 Growing their digital infrastructure;
 Investing in citizen connection.

 Improved Data Management

 Anticipatory Public Services
 Committing to entirely digital services.
 Constructing infrastructure to enable such seamless services.
 Establishing proactive services based on life events.

69
 Comprehensive Cybersecurity Measures;
 Diversity, Equity and Inclusion
 Accessible design of government services.
 Co-creation and citizen engagement.
 Data sovereignty and equity.
 Equitable access to public goods.
 Flexible and Remote Workplaces;
 Agile (swift/ alert) Administration;

70
Rebuilding Government Trust:
 Educator: Impart knowledge, skills and resources to inform,
influence or drive an outcome;
 Enforcer: Enforce rules and regulations by detecting wrongdoing
and enacting consequences ;
 Innovator: Drive new ways of thinking and doing or support the
innovation of others through investment;
 Regulator: Develop rules and regulations that effectively deter
undesired or illegal behaviors;
 Retailer: Offer goods and services to external customers or staff
in a competitive environment;
71
Major Current PA trends:
 New Governance;

 New Leadership Style;

 Generational change and succession planning;

 Strategic and performance management;

 Citizen focus engagement;

 Recognized work structure & process;

 E-government, e-democracy, web & networks;

 Service delivery, motivation;

 Ethics and transparency;

 Fit the leadership & administration to changing situations;

 Contingent, transformational and innovative leaderships.

72
Public Administration (4Es):
 Efficiency;
 Effectiveness;
 Economy;
 Equity/ social equity.

73
PUBLIC POLICY MAKING THEORIES/MODELS

Uses of Models ( Dye) :

 Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public
policy;
 Identify important aspects of policy problems;
 Help us to communicate with each other by focusing on
essential features of political life;
 Direct our efforts to understand public policy better by
suggesting what is important and unimportant;
 Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its
consequences.
74
Public policy theories/models:
Answers:
 Who participates in policy making?

 How are policy decisions made?

 What are the underlying assumptions of

the theory/model?
 what are the consequences for the general
public of policy decisions made in
accordance with the particular
theory/model? 75
1. Institutionalism
 Public policy as institutional output

 Who: executive, legislative, and judicial

branches
 How: policy is authoritatively determined,
implemented, and enforced by these institutions
(legitimacy, universality, and coercion)
 Implications/assumptions: individuals have
little impact; structure/design affects outcomes

76
2. Process Model- The six steps in policy making
model;
 Public policy as political activity;
 Who: voters, interest groups, legislators,
presidents, bureaucrats, judges;
 How: Identify problem, set agenda, formulate
policy proposals, legitimate policies, implement
policies, evaluate policies;
 Implications/assumptions: who participates has
a critical or determinant impact on the process.

77
3. GROUP MODEL

 Public policy as group equilibrium

 Who: interest groups, their allies in government
 How: struggle among interest groups with
legislature/executive as referee to manage group
conflict and establish rules of the game
 Implications/assumptions: groups will always
join to press for particular issues, all interests will
have an opportunity for representation.
78
4. ELITE MODEL

 Public policy as elite preference

 Who: elites that have power, ability to
allocate value;
 How: implementation of the preferences and
values of the governing elite; public officials
merely carry out policies decided on by the
elites;
 Implications/assumptions:public is apathetic
elites agree upon norms; political action is
merely symbolic; protects the status quo;

79
5. RATIONALISM

 Public policy as maximum social gain;

 Who: decision makers (all social, political,
economic values sacrificed or achieved by a policy
choice) irrespective of dollar amount (Bentham,
Mills);
 How: select policy alternative(s) that allows gains
to society to exceed benefits by the greatest amount;
 Implications/assumptions: assumes that the
values preferences of the society as a whole can be
known and weighted.
80
6. Incrementalism model:
 Public policy as variations on the past;
 Who: policy makers, legislators, others with a
stake in ongoing programs or problems
 How: continuation of past government
activities with only incremental modifications
 Implications/assumptions: accepts the
legitimacy of established programs; fear of
unintended consequences; sunk costs in other
programs may minimize the opportunities for
radical change
81
7. GAME THEORY
 Public policy as rational choice in competitive situations
 Who: players/decision makers who have
choices to make and the outcome depends on
the choice made by each (assumes rationality
in making choices)
 How: each player has goals and resources, a
strategy developed given possible moves of
opponent, and payoff values that constitute the
outcomes of the game
 Implications/assumptions: repeated plays
should lead to better policy outcomes
82
8. PUBLIC CHOICE
 Public policy as collective decision making by self-
interested individuals

 Who: rational self-interested individuals will in both

politics and economics cooperate to achieve their goals

 How: individuals come together in politics for their

own mutual benefit; government must respond to
market failures

 Implications/assumptions: individuals have sufficient

information to know what is in their best interest
83
9. SYSTEMS THEORY
 Public policy as a system output
 Who: individuals, groups, or nations depending upon
the scope of the problem
 How: environment may stimulate inputs into political
system, producing outputs and feedback
 Implications/assumptions: systems implies an
identifiable set of institutions and activities in society
that functions to transforms demands into authoritative
decisions requiring the support of the whole society;
implies that the elements of the system are interrelated,
that the system can respond to forces in its environment
and that it will do so to preserve itself. (political, social,
env’tal & economic intertwined and synergy) 84
10. GARBAGE CAN MODEL

 Who: participants inside and outside government

 How: choice opportunity is a garbage can into which various

kinds of problems and solutions are dumped by participants
as they are generated; policy outcomes are a function of the
mix of the garbage: problems, solutions, participants, and
participant resources in the can and how the can is processed

 Implications/assumptions: each of the actors and processes

can operate either as an impetus or as a constraint; streams
operate largely independent of one another
 Agenda setting process in Public policy-making…

85
What is Development Planning?
 A systematic or carefully formulated course of actions
/policies designed to achieve the dev’t;
 Foundation of Nations development;
 Documents to achieve the stated goals and objectives
in a timely manner by mobilizing the available
resources;
 Means to achieve the goals and objectives of
economic and social development;
 Proposed roadmap of development;
 Outline of future actions;
86
Dev’t Plan needs to answer the following Questions :
 Where are we now? (baseline);
 Where do we want to be? (Target);

 What do we want to achieve? (M&E, KRAs, KPIs);

 How can we get there? (policies, programs, projects

and strategies);
Elements of Dev’t Planning:
 Goals and objectives
 Resources
 Time

87
Why Dev’t Plan?
 Fulfillment of basic need of people/Standard of living of

people;
 Poverty alleviation;

 Improve employment;

 Best use of resources for maximum returns;

 Distribution & redistribution of resources;

 Balanced development/Justifiable distribution of

development ;
 Maintaining social justice/Inclusive development;

 Fulfill national and international commitments;

 Socio-economic development of nation.

88
 Basis of Plan Formulation:
 The constitution of a Nation;
 Existing laws, rules and national policies;
 National long-term strategies;
 Sectorial perspective plans;
 Election manifesto of ruling political parties;
 Sustainable Development Goals, Regional,
continental and International Commitments;
 Major problems and possibilities;
 Contemporary Challenges of the development;
 Influential social /interest groups/influential leaders. 89
 Types of dev’t Plan:
By Spatial/Geography/Level
 National periodic development plan
 Provincial periodic development plan
 Local level periodic development plan
By Time Frame (Period)
 Long term (perspective) plan [15-25 year]
 Medium term plan [3-7 year]
 Annual plan [1 year]
By Objectivity
 Controlled economic planning

 Indicative planning

 Strategic planning
By Sector
 Sectorial plan
 Sub-sectoral plan 90
 Problems of Dev’t Planning:
 Successful planning in developing countries is made cult
by a number of factors:
 Non-availability & poor quality of data even when available;
 Frequent political changes and poor quality of leadership;
 Lack of discipline, commitment & capacity to implement what
is in the plan;
 Inadequate financial resources from both internal & external
sources;
 High level of corruption;
 Inadequacy of administrative, professional and managerial
skills;
 Overambitious and unrealistic plans.
91
Development Policy:
 Development policy refers to activities that aim to

reduce poverty, implement fundamental rights and

promote sustainable development globally.
 It refers to plans or actions designed to encourage
economic, political and social development, especially
the reduction of poverty and sustainable improvements
in living conditions in developing and transition
countries;
 One of the main development policy challenges is how
to coordinate all sub-policy areas into a coherent whole.
Kassa T. (PhD)
92
 Development Policy Options
The policy perspective is historically spread over five stages:
 1945 to mid 1950s
 Mid 1950s to late 1960s
 Late 1960s to 1980s
 1980s and 1990s
 Post 1990s
Kassa T. (PhD)

93
1945 to mid 1950s Context:
 Political independence of several developing
countries;
 Worldwide policies to boost aggregate
demand (Keynesian);
 Setting up of the Bretton woods institutions
(World Bank, IMF, WTO);
 State intervention and planned/ command
economy (Soviet Union).
Kassa T. (PhD) 94
Problems
 Low saving – low level of equilibrium –
underdevelopment;
 High population growth;
 Rossana stain, Rodan and Nurks – market failure is
due to scale economies and externalities;
 Lewis – dual economy with traditional / backward
sector(rural-agriculture) and modern sector(urban-
industry);
• Lewis and Hirschman – emphasis on inter sector linkages and
discussions about the benefits of balanced versus unbalanced
economic growth;
Kassa T. (PhD) 95
Mid 1950s to late 1960s
 Uneven international development and import
substitution policies to promote industrialization Ideas
(Baran);
 Marxist theorists gave importance to political and
social factors in development, inefficiency and
corruption of capitalist state;
 Cardoso, Prebisch and Chenery: structuralism
recognition of structural rigidities typical of developing
countries;
• Singer and Prebisch- supply rigidities in agriculture and
industry, terms of trade weighted against developing countries.

Kassa T. (PhD) 96
Late 1960s to 1980s
 Asian tigers emerged
 There was a serious debt problem

Ideas
 Revival of neo-classical economics

 Lal, Little, Scitovsky- free market policies and

 export orientation.

 Emergence of basic needs agenda

 Emphasizing neglect of the poor

Dependency school
 criticism of structure of international relations and trade ( and
TNCs) which systematically hampers efforts of import
substitution and industrialization (ISI) countries.
Kassa T.
97
1980s to 1990s Context
Debt crisis
 IMF and WB first structural adjustment

waverecession and poverty increase.

 Revision of the NIC’s experiences show the

scope for state intervention and the synergies

between states and markets.
• But continuing pressure to liberalize.
Kassa T.
(PhD)
98
Ideas
 New growth theory emphasize role of income inequality,

education and natural resources;

 New structuralisms theory studying problems of
determinants of growth , income distribution, inflation
and fiscal and balance of payments;
 New neo-classical approaches (industrial organization,

game theory and information economics) applied to

development (agrarian relations, income distribution,
causes of poverty).
Post 1990s
 Rediscovery of state intervention and regulation

(Back to the 1940s??) Kassa T. (PhD)

99
Global Framework for Development
 The Monterrey Conference … financing for
development;
 The WTO Doha Meeting on Trade and
Development ;
 The Johannesburg Summit on Sustainable
Development (JSSD);
 The Global Compact … to encourage businesses
worldwide to adopt sustainable and socially
responsible policies.
Kassa T. (PhD)
100
Putting Frameworks into Practice
• The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
 SDGs,

• Poverty Reduction Strategies Papers (PRSPs

• Sector Wide Approaches (SWAps)
• Results-Based Management (RBM)
• Good Governance (GG)
• Rights-Based Approach (RBA) to Development
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Kassa T. (PhD)

101
 THE EXPERIENCE OF COUNTRIES IN AFRICA INCLUDING
ETHIOPIA

Botswana experience:
 Small, landlocked country with high population;
 Diamond and livestock resources based economy;
 Favorable institutions and human capacity
development;
 Multi-party democracy (free press, no political
prisoners, etc.) - Better social security system.
Kassa T. (PhD)

102
ETHIOPIA

National development strategies;

 Industrial development through import substitution and
industrialization; (1950-74 );
 Centrally planned, industry led development; (1974-91)

 led development Agricultural-led, export oriented

development policies (1991 to present )
Selected policies
1950-74
 Land was mainly owned by the state and the church;

 Establishment of large commercial farms producing coffee, as

means of earning foreign currency;
 Prioritized the development of non-agricultural industries.

Kassa T. (PhD)
103
1974-91
 Nationalization of land and other productive assets;

 Collectivization of farms and promotion of villagisation programs;

 Mixed economic policies (1988-89).

 Distortion of markets through price controls, and overvaluation of

the Ethiopian birr.

1991 to present
 Land remains state owned;
 Changed national development priority to agricultural
development;
 Adoption of SAPs and export-oriented open economy;

 GTPI, GTPII, TYDP (Ten Year Dev’t Plan)

 Home Grown Economic Reform;

 Pragmatic Economic Policy Approach.

104
Evolution of Ethiopia’s National Development Strategies since 1991
 National development strategies
• A framework for all national development strategies, with
agricultural sector development recognized as a catalyst for
economic transformation (ADLI );
• Builds on the ADLI, with primary focus on poverty
reduction, macroeconomic stability and meeting the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) standards
(SDPRP)… 2003-05 ;
• Within the ADLI framework, but promoted large-scale
commercial farming, development of manufacturing sector;
and stronger rural-urban linkages (PASDEP) …2005-10;
Kassa T. (PhD)
105
 Reprioritized commercialization of smallholder
agriculture, set dual objectives of agricultural and
industrial sector development. Urban areas recognized as
a catalyst for industrial development; (GTP I 2005-10);
 Builds on GTPI, mainstreams the ADLI and continues to
position urban areas as catalyst for economic
transformation and development of light manufacturing
industry; (GTP II 2005-10); 2015-20);
 The first explicit rural development strategy… promotes
smallholder agricultural development-driven growth.
2003 Rural Development Policy and Strategy (RDPS)
(2003).

106
The new home grown economic policy reform
Purpose:
 To sustain economic growth (via private sector

contribution and diverse base)

Economic policy shifts:
 Public to private (PPP)
 Debt to equity
 Economic policy areas:
 Macroeconomic policy reform
 Sectorial policy reform
 Structural policy reform
107
Education Policy
 using local languages in the classroom;

 developing context-appropriate primary

school syllabi and textbooks;

 eliminating school fees;

 developing quality assessment mechanisms.

 The New Education development roadmap:

 The whole purpose of the roadmap is to ensure a holistic
educational system that would help to create ;
responsible citizens who can effectively shape the
bright future of this country;
 Focus : quality of education (the big challenge is lack
of well-trained experts in all fields).
Kassa T. (PhD)
108
Health policy
 At the core of the health policy is:
• democratization and decentralization of the health
care system;
• developing preventive, promotive and curative
components of health care;
• accessibility of health care for all parts of the
population;
• encouraging private and nongovernmental
organization participation in the health sector.
Kassa T. (PhD)
109
 Priorities of the health policy are:
• health information, education and communication;
• an emphasis on control of communicable diseases,
epidemics and diseases related to malnutrition and poor
living conditions;
• promotion of occupational health and safety;
• rehabilitation of the health infrastructure;
• development of health service management systems;
• development of curative and rehabilitative.
Kassa T. (PhD)

110
• Components of health, including mental
health;
• Health research addressing the major health
problems;
• Provision of essential medicines, medical supplies and
equipment;
• Responding to health needs of women and children and
neglected regions and segments of the population.

Kassa T. (PhD)
111
Discussion questions
 Is public policy free of problems?. If yes how? & if no how?
 What distinguishes Public from private interests?
 What is public? Does public policy always imply a role for
government?
 How does public policy affect our everyday lives? What kinds
of controls must be in place to ensure the interests of
individuals, groups & public at large?
 What controls are in place to ensure equity & inclusiveness in
public-policy making?
 Explore the role of a government, politicians, policy-makers in
our everyday lives.
112
Discussion Questions (cont..)
 Name some government policies at local, federal,
state, regional, continental & global levels. How did
these policies come to be? Who decides if they are
needed? Who enforces them?
 Can citizens (like you) affect policy decisions? What
are some ways that citizens can participate in the
formation and implementation of public policy?

113
 Term Paper:
 FORM SIX GROUPS FROM BOTH SECTIONS;
 Evaluate Ethiopia’s:
 Environment Policy;
 Gender Policy;
 Health Policy;
 Education Policy;
 Social policy/social protection policy &
 Ten-Year Perspective Plan (currently underway).

114
 How can we go about it?....
 Show when adopted and put into action. Evaluate how it is working?, is it
new/old/revised?
 Evaluate the process of formulation, adoption, implementation;
 Evaluate its relevance, effectiveness & efficiency;
 How is it working now or what is the status?
 Identify challenges encountered in the process of implementation & how the
problem was addressed;
 Evaluate its significance, outcome and impacts (if there is);

 Give your overall reflections from the point of view of your acquired
knowledge & understanding.
115
 Thank you all, and wish you all the best!

116