8.

GROUND LOADS
AIRCRAFT ATTITUDE IN THE
LONGITUDINAL PLANE
 LANDING GEAR
Fungsi landing gear:
• Menyediakan suspensi yang cukup selama taxi, take-off
dan landing.
• Menyerap energi kinetic akibat impak landing/ kecepatan
vertikal, sehingga mengurangi beban impak yang akan
mengalir ke airframe; energi kinetik =
• Menyerap sebagian energi kinetic yang terjadi akibat
kecepatan horizontal V; energi kinetik =
• Merubah gerakan terbang menjadi gerakan gelinding.
(pengereman)
Main landing gear dan komponennya
(F-28)
 ENERGY ABSORPTION
EQUATION

𝑚=𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑉 =𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑔=𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
h= 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡
 ABSORPTION OF VERTICAL
ENERGY-BRAKE
CONSIDERATIONS
For the landing mass condition at a vertical velocity of V v the total vertical kinetic energy is
simply:

where
is the vertical deflection of the centre of gravity in the initial impact
K is the ratio of the lift to the weight at impact
The absorption of this energy will be shared between all the landing gear units touching down
at the same time. The datum case is a two-point landing and the energy is assumed to be
equally absorbed by each main unit. When there are only two main gears, as is usual, the
energy absorbed by each main gear unit is:

At the landing mass of the aircraft this corresponds to a vertical static load on that
 ABSORPTION OF HORIZONTAL
ENERGY-BRAKE
CONSIDERATIONS
For initial calculations the required energy absorption for each brake unit can be estimated from
the following:

where
is the number of brakes on the main-wheels
is the design landing mass
V is the speed from which a stop must be made
is a factor which allows for the contribution of the aerodynamic drag

may be taken to be as low as 0.7 for a tail-wheel aircraft but it is nearer 1.0 for a clean nose-
wheel aircraft. However, it may be possible to use the drag effect of a nose-wheel aircraft by
maintaining a high incidence until late in the landing run by delaying the ropping of the nose or
by using flap effect and airbrakes. In this case may be as low as 0.8.
 DESIGN SINKING SPEED
LANDING GEAR
Dalam design sinking speeds (landing gear dapat menyerap
energi kinetic total = tanpa terjadi bloking, sementara gaya
reaksi maksimum dirancang agar tetap rendah.
Suatu angka umum yang ingin dicapai dalam desain adalah
gaya maksimum sebesar 1.7 kali reaksi roda statik

Occurrences of sinking speed per 1000 landing

 LANDING VERTICAL VELOCITY
REQUIREMENTS
This is the basic case and the requirement codes quote a design vertical velocity, V v to be
applied when the aircraft touches down at the design landing mass:
• United Kingdom military aircraft, Def.Stan.00-970 (fixed wing):
Vv = 3.66 m/s (12 ft/s) for combat aircraft
= 3 . 9 6 m/ s (13ft/s) for trainers
• United States military aircraft. MlL-A-8862:
Vv = 3.05 m/s (I0 ft/s) generally but
= 3.96 m/s (13 ft/s) for land-based trainers
• JAR-25/FAR-25 (Civil transport aircraft):
Vv = 3.05 m/s (10 ft/s)

• JAR-23 (Light aircraft):

Vv = 4.4 ft/s hut 7 ft/s < Vv.< 10 ft/s

Where (mg/S) is the wing loading in lb/ft2 and the wing lift is taken to be no more than two-
thirds of the weight. For light aircraft the design landing mass is often the same as the take-off
mass but JAR-23.473(a) to (c) allows for a lower value in some cases.
 LANDING SPEED CALCULATIONS

Landing speeds per FAR 25.479(a) are specified to bound the possible operation of the
aircraft as follows:
(tas) (6.1)
Where is the airplane stall speed for a standard day operation at sea level with the flaps
in the appropriate landing configuration,
(tas) (6.2)
where is the airplane stall speed for a hot day operation at 41°F above standard at the
maximum airport altitude for which the airplane will be certified, and where is aircraft
tailwind.
 EFFECT OF HOT DAY ON
LANDING SPEEDS
Consider the basic equations relating lift to air density and airspeed, as follows:
Assuming a standard day,
(6.3)
Where is the lift coefficient at stall, is the air density for a standard day (), is the airspeed at
stall for a standard day (ft/s), and is the wing reference area ().
A similar equation can now be written for a hot day :
(6.4)
Equating EQS. (6.3) and (6.4), the relationship between air density and airspeed for a
standard and hot day becomes
(6.5)
If lift as defined in Eq. (6.3) is to be maintained constant, then as the air density is reduced
due to a hot day with respect to the standard day reference, then the airspeed must be
increased as noted in Eq. (6.5).
 (6.5)

The term as defined by FAR 25.479(a)(2) may now be obtained from Eq. (6.5):
(6.6)
From the perfect gas law:
or (6.7)
It follows then at a constant altitude that the relationship between air density and
temperature may be stated as
(6.8)
The stall speeds for a hot day may now be calculated from Eqs. (6.6) and (6.8):
(6.9)
where is the stall speed for a standard day at the altitude under consideration.
By defining the stall speed in terms of equivalent airspeed, Eq. (6.9) may be
written as
(ktas) (6.10)
Landing speeds calculated per FAR
25.479 are shown in Table 6.1.
 LOAD CASES RESULTING FROM

Landing conditions Ground Handling conditions

• Loads in a two point landing case • taxi conditions,
• Loads in a three point landing case
• braked-roll conditions,
• One-gear landing condition
• refused takeoff conditions,
• Side load
• Rebound • turning conditions,
• Spin Up • Towing,
• Spring Back • jacking conditions
• Braking