Aircraft Performance

Module 4
Where are we?

1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere

2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design

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Turning flight and flight envelope
 Introduction/Objectives
 Understand performance in turning flight

• Lift required in a turn

• Turning radius and rate of turn
• Drag increment in a turn
• Operational considerations

 Understand limits associated with flight envelope

• Stall speed and stall warning

• Buffet boundary
• Ceiling / Maximum certified altitude
• Maximum operating speed and max. speed with flaps extended

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Turning flight and flight envelope
Turning Performance

 Summation of vertical forces during the turn yields the

relationship between load factor n and bank angle φ

Σ Fv = 0
(W/g)V2/RT
L cos φ = W
L/W = NZ = 1/cos φ

Lift and AOA are increased in a turn

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Turning flight and flight envelope
Turning Performance (Cont’d)

 Summation of horizontal forces during the turn yields the

relationship between bank angle φ and turning radius RT

Σ Fh = 0
L sin φ = (W/g)V2/RT
Knowing that NZ = L/W = 1/cos φ we can determine RT

 RT = V2/(g tan φ)
or
 RT = V2/[g(NZ2-1)0.5]

Rate of turn is dψ/dt = V/ RT (rad/sec)

 dψ/dt = [g(NZ 2-1)0.5]/V
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Turning flight and flight envelope
Turning Performance (Cont’d)
 Drag is increased in a turn
• In level flight : CD = CDo + KCL2
• In turning flight : CD = CDo + K NZ2CL2

• Drag increment : Δ CD turn = KCL2 (NZ2 – 1)

 Operational considerations
• Good turning performance may be required at some airports in
order to avoid obstacles
• In order to maintain level flight during a turn, thrust must be
increased
• Stall margin is reduced during a turn
• Minimum drag speed is increased during a turn
• Minimum speeds used for flight must take into account the
effect of a turn

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Turning flight and flight envelope
Flight Envelope

 The flight envelope defines altitude and airspeeds at which the

aircraft can be operated

 Many factors are used to define the flight envelope

• Stall speed
• Stall warning
• Buffet boundary
• Ceiling
• Maximum certified altitude
• Maximum cruise speed
• VMO / MMO
• VFE and VLE
• VMD

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Turning flight and flight envelope
Flight Envelope – Stall Speed

 Basic considerations
 Regulations
 Test data
 Load factor
 CG effects
 Stall speed chart

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Turning flight and flight envelope
Flight Envelope – Stall Speed Considerations
 Defines the lower limit of the flight envelope at low altitude
 Used as a reference to establish safe operating speeds
 Determination of stall speed and stall characteristics is an important part
of an aircraft certification program
• Impact on performance guarantees
• Stall speeds and stall characteristics are not easily predictable

A Stall Protection System

(SPS) may be required if
stall characteristics do
not meet all certification
requirements. Two types
of stick pushers are
typically used:

• Pre-aerodynamic stall
• Post-aerodynamic stall

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Turning flight and flight envelope
Flight Envelope – Stall Speed Considerations (Cont’d)
 A pre-stall pusher is used when the basic aerodynamic stall
characteristics are not certifiable
• Typically used when leading edge stall occurs (no slats)
• For example, pitch-up or excessive roll at aerodynamic stall
• The pre-stall pusher prevents the aircraft from reaching the
maximum α corresponding to aerodynamic stall
• During an approach to a stall, α increases and the SPS will
activate the stick pusher when α reaches the pusher firing
angle defined in the SPS and corresponding to the flight
condition (e.g. Mach or altitude) and aircraft configuration (e.g.
flap setting)
• A suitable α margin must be present between α at pusher
activation and α at aerodynamic stall to cater for (1) effect of
dynamic stall entries and (2) adverse effects of potential wing
leading edge contamination
• Current regulations require that the reference stall speed (VSR)
be defined as follows for aircraft with pre-stall pusher:
VSR = 1.02 Vs1g
Where Vs1g is the speed at pusher activation
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Turning flight and flight envelope
Flight Envelope – Stall Speed Considerations (Cont’d)
 A post-stall pusher is normally used when the basic
aerodynamic stall characteristics are acceptable but when other
characteristics are uncertifiable
• Possibility of deep stall
• Identification of the stall is deficient

 Current regulations require that the reference stall speed be

defined as follows for aircraft with post-stall pusher:
• VSR is the greater of
Vs1g ( Vs1g is the ‘1 g’ aerodynamic stall speed)
Or
1.02 Vpush (Vpush is the speed at pusher activation)

 Special considerations for calculation of stall speed ratios (e.g.

1.15 VSR):
• Ratios are calculated using calibrated airspeed values
• VSR is based on a load factor of 1 g
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Turning flight and flight envelope
Flight Envelope – Stall Speed Regulations
§25.103   Stall speed.
(b) The reference stall speed, VSR, is a calibrated airspeed defined
by the applicant. VSR may not be less than a 1-g stall speed.
VSR is expressed as:

where:

VCLMAX = Calibrated airspeed obtained when the load factor-

corrected lift coefficient is first a maximum during the
maneuver prescribed in paragraph (c) of this section. In
addition, when the maneuver is limited by a device that
abruptly pushes the nose down at a selected angle of attack
(e.g., a stick pusher), VCLMAX may not be less than the speed
existing at the instant the device operates;

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 Flight Envelope – Stall Speed Regulations (Cont’d)
(b) VCLMAX is determined with:
(1) Engines idling, or, if that resultant thrust causes an appreciable decrease
in stall speed, not more than zero thrust at the stall speed;
…

(5) The center of gravity position that results in the highest value of reference
stall speed; and
(6) The airplane trimmed for straight flight at a speed selected by the
applicant, but not less than 1.13VSR and not greater than 1.3VSR.
(c) Starting from the stabilized trim condition, apply the longitudinal control to
decelerate the airplane so that the speed reduction does not exceed one
knot per second.
(d) In addition to the requirements of paragraph (a) of this section, when a
device that abruptly pushes the nose down at a selected angle of attack
(e.g., a stick pusher) is installed, the reference stall speed, VSR, may not be
less than 2 knots or 2 percent, whichever is greater, above the speed at
which the device operates.

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 Flight Envelope – Stall Speed Regulations (Cont’d)
§25.201   Stall demonstration.
(d) The airplane is considered stalled when the behavior of the airplane
gives the pilot a clear and distinctive indication of an acceptable nature
that the airplane is stalled. Acceptable indications of a stall, occurring
either individually or in combination, are

(1) A nose-down pitch that cannot be readily arrested;

(2) Buffeting, of a magnitude and severity that is a strong and
effective deterrent to further speed reduction; or
(3) The pitch control reaches the aft stop and no further
increase in pitch attitude occurs when the control is held
full aft for a short time before recovery is initiated.

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 Flight Envelope – Stall Speed Regulations (Cont’d)
§25.203   Stall characteristics.
(a) It must be possible to produce and to correct roll and yaw
by unreversed use of the aileron and rudder controls, up to
the time the airplane is stalled. No abnormal nose-up
pitching may occur. The longitudinal control force must be
positive up to and throughout the stall. In addition, it must
be possible to promptly prevent stalling and to recover from
a stall by normal use of the controls.
(b) For level wing stalls, the roll occurring between the stall
and the completion of the recovery may not exceed
approximately 20 degrees.
(c) For turning flight stalls, the action of the airplane after the
stall may not be so violent or extreme as to make it
difficult, with normal piloting skill, to effect a prompt
recovery and to regain control of the airplane. The
maximum bank angle that occurs during the recovery may
not exceed --
(1) Approximately 60 degrees in the original direction of the
turn, or 30 degrees in the opposite direction, for
deceleration rates up to 1 knot per second; and
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(2) Approximately 90 degrees in the original direction of the
Flight Envelope – Stall Test Data – No SPS

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Flight Envelope – Stall Test Data – Pre-stall Pusher

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Flight Envelope – Stall Speed – Load Factor

 In order to determine CLMAX from test data, the normal flight path load
factor NZ must be determined

 NZ is determined from body axis accelerometers and angle-of-attack α

using the following equation

NZ = (NZB - NZO) cos α + (NXB - NXO) sin α

Where:
NZB = Normal acceleration in aircraft body axis (g)
NZO = Normal acceleration offset (g)
NXB = Longitudinal acceleration in aircraft body axis (g)
NXO = Longitudinal acceleration offset (g)

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Flight Envelope – Stall Speed – CG effect

 CLMAX test data is typically obtained with a CG within a small tolerance of

the forward CG limit (tolerance allowed for flight test purposes)

 CLMAX test data can be corrected for the exact forward CG limit using the
following equation that assumes constant α

CLFWD = CLTEST [ 1 + (MAC/LT)*(CGFWD – CGTEST)]

Where:

CLFWD = CL corrected for the forward CG limit

CLTEST = CL derived from test
MAC = mean aerodynamic chord (ft)

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Flight Envelope – Stall Speed – CG effect (Cont’d)

LT = effective tail arm, distance from 25% MAC of the wing to 25 % MAC of
the tail (ft)
CGFWD = CG position at forward limit (fraction of MAC)
CGTEST = test CG position (fraction of MAC)

 The equation presented on the previous slide can also be used for other
applications where CL is defined at constant α for a given CG position

• CL - α curve
• CL at buffet onset

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Turning flight and flight envelope
Flight Envelope – Stall Speed Chart

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 Flight Envelope – Stall Warning

 Stall warning is an important feature that alerts the pilot when he

reaches an excessive α condition that may lead to a stall
• Aural warning
• Buffeting or artificial stall warning provided by a stick shaker
 α at stall warning must not be deliberately exceeded by the pilot
 Most aircraft do not have adequate natural buffeting
• Stall warning is provided by a stick shaker
• α for stick shaker actuation is programmed in the SPS
 Normal all-engine operating speeds must provide a minimum
margin of 40 degree bank (1.305 g) prior to stall warning
 Regulations related to stall warning are presented on the next
slides

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Turning flight and flight envelope
Flight Envelope – Stall Warning Regulations
§25.207   Stall warning.
(a) Stall warning with sufficient margin to prevent inadvertent
stalling with the flaps and landing gear in any normal position
must be clear and distinctive to the pilot in straight and turning
flight.
(b) The warning must be furnished either through the inherent
aerodynamic qualities of the airplane or by a device that will
give clearly distinguishable indications under expected
conditions of flight. However, a visual stall warning device that
requires the attention of the crew within the cockpit is not
acceptable by itself. If a warning device is used, it must
provide a warning in each of the airplane configurations
prescribed in paragraph (a) of this section at the speed
prescribed in paragraphs (c) and (d) of this section.
(c) When the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding one knot
per second, stall warning must begin, in each normal
configuration, at a speed, VSW, exceeding the speed at which
the stall is identified in accordance with §25.201(d) by not less
than five knots or five percent CAS, whichever is greater.
Once initiated, stall warning must continue until the angle of
attack is reduced to approximately that at which stall warning
began. Turning flight and flight envelope
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Flight Envelope – Stall Warning Regulations
(d) In addition to the requirement of paragraph (c) of this section,
when the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding one knot per
second, in straight flight with engines idling and at the center-of-
gravity position specified in §25.103(b)(5), VSW, in each normal
configuration, must exceed VSR by not less than three knots
or three percent CAS, whichever is greater.
(e) The stall warning margin must be sufficient to allow the pilot to
prevent stalling (as defined in §25.201(d)) when recovery is
initiated not less than one second after the onset of stall warning in
slow-down turns with at least 1.5g load factor normal to the flight
path and airspeed deceleration rates of at least 2 knots per second,
with the flaps and landing gear in any normal position, with the
airplane trimmed for straight flight at a speed of 1.3 VSR, and with
the power or thrust necessary to maintain level flight at 1.3 VSR.
(f) Stall warning must also be provided in each abnormal configuration
of the high lift devices that is likely to be used in flight following
system failures (including all configurations covered by Airplane
Flight Manual procedures).

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Flight Envelope – Buffet Boundary

 Basic considerations
 Regulations
 Test data
 Data expansion
 AFM data

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Flight Envelope – Buffet Boundary
 Buffeting is normally caused by separation of airflow over the
wing surface
 Separation of airflow results from shockwaves (compressibility
effects)
 Buffeting can occur at relatively low speed but relatively high α -
referred to as low speed buffet
 Buffeting can also occur at high speed but relatively low α -
referred to as high speed buffet
 Buffet onset is defined by flight test
• Windup turns at constant Mach are conducted
• Defined as the speed at which the vibration reaches +/- 0.05g
• Lift coefficient at buffet onset is determined as a function of M
 Operationally, a maneuvering margin of at least 0.3 g is desired
prior to buffet onset during all phases of flight
• Not a requirement except for JAA

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Flight Envelope – Buffet Boundary Regulations
§25.251   Vibration and buffeting.

(a) The airplane must be demonstrated in flight to be free from

any vibration and buffeting that would prevent continued safe
flight in any likely operating condition.
(b) Each part of the airplane must be demonstrated in flight to be
free from excessive vibration under any appropriate speed and
power conditions up to VDF/MDF. The maximum speeds shown
must be used in establishing the operating limitations of the
airplane in accordance with §25.1505.
(c) Except as provided in paragraph (d) of this section, there may
be no buffeting condition, in normal flight, including
configuration changes during cruise, severe enough to
interfere with the control of the airplane, to cause excessive
fatigue to the crew, or to cause structural damage. Stall
warning buffeting within these limits is allowable.
(d) There may be no perceptible buffeting condition in the cruise
configuration in straight flight at any speed up to VMO/MMO,
except that stall warning buffeting is allowable.
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Flight Envelope – Buffet Boundary Test Data

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Flight Envelope – Buffet Boundary Test Data

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Flight Envelope – Buffet Boundary Data Expansion
 The CLBUFFET versus M relationship obtained from buffet onset
testing can be transformed into a more useful format
• Normalized load factor ( W NZ / δ) versus M
• ( W NZ / δ) = 1481.3 CL M2 S
 The graph showing W NZ / δ versus M is shown on the next
page and provides a convenient way to determine margin to low
speed and high speed buffet onset knowing load factor, weight
and altitude
 “Coffin corner” refers to the flight condition at the top of the
normalized load factor versus M graph – a condition where no
speed margin is available to low speed and high speed buffet
onset
 The graph showing W NZ / δ versus M is used as the basis for
AFM data expansion

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Flight Envelope – Buffet Boundary Data Expansion

W Nz
δ
(1000 lb)

Mach

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Flight Envelope – Buffet Boundary AFM Data

1 lb = 0.4356
kg

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Flight Envelope – Ceiling
 Maximum altitude may be limited by climb performance
requirements

 Rate of climb reduces as altitude increases

 Climb ceiling is the altitude where the rate of climb reaches a

minimum acceptable value
• No certification or operational requirements specify minimum
rate of climb at the ceiling
• Typically, 300 ft/min is used as the threshold
• Lower values (down to 100 ft/min) or higher values (up to 500
ft/min) may also be used

 Climb ceiling varies with weight, deviation from ISA, engine

bleed extraction and climb speed schedule

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Flight Envelope – Maximum Certified Altitude

 A limitation defined by the aircraft manufacturer and specified in

the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)

 A fixed value independent of other parameters such as weight,

temperature, …

 Typically between 41,000 ft and 51,000 ft

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Flight Envelope – Maximum Cruise Speed

 The maximum speed that can be achieved in level flight with

maximum cruise thrust (MCR) on all engines

 Varies as a function of weight, altitude, deviation from ISA and

engine bleed extraction

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 Flight Envelope – VMO and MMO

 The maximum operating speed and Mach number for the clean
configuration

 A limitation established by the aircraft manufacturer and defined

in the AFM

 Speed limitation at lower altitudes and Mach number limitation at

higher altitudes

 Aural warning is provided if VMO or MMO are exceeded

 Example of VMO and MMO chart is shown on the next slide

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Flight Envelope – VMO and MMO

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Flight Envelope – VFE and VLE

 VFE is the maximum speed permitted with flaps extended

• Fixed values of VFE are used for different flap/slat

configurations
• An AFM limitation – may not be exceeded by the pilot during
normal operation
• Typically varies from 180 KIAS for most extended landing flap
position to 230 KIAS for least extended take-off flap position

 VLE is the maximum speed permitted with landing gear extended

• An AFM limitation
• VLE is a fixed number that is typically between 200 and 250
KIAS

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Flight Envelope – VMD

 Has been discussed earlier

 Not a hard limit but operation below VMD (including effect of

turn) is normally avoided because of increased pilot workload

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