DEMOCRACY

AND
ELECTION
 CHAPTER ONE:
UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF DEMOCRACY

• Lesson One: The concept, origin and evolution, aspects of Democracy

1.1. Conceptual Approach: Meaning and Definitions of Democracy
Etymologically, democracy is a term derived from two Greek words, “demos’
and ‘Kractia’.
• Demos mean the people and In short it means the power of the people.
• kracia means power/rule.
However, the simple notion of ‘rule by the people’ does not get us very far.
– The problem with democracy has been its very popularity, a popularity that
has threatened the term’s undoing as a meaningful political concept.
– In Bernard Crick’s (2000) words, ‘democracy is perhaps the most
promiscuous word in the world of public affairs’. A term that can mean
anything to anyone is in danger of meaning nothing at all.
 Major and prominent working definitions of the term democracy

1. Democracy has three basic senses in contemporary usage. These are the
following:
 Democracy is a form of government and way of people’s life in which
the right to make Political decisions is exercised directly by the whole
body of citizens
 Democracy is a form of government and way of people’s life in which
citizens exercise their legitimate rights and freedoms, and discharge
their obligations not in person but through representatives
 Democracy is a form government, usually a representative democracy, in
which the powers of the majority (majority rule) are exercised with in a frame
work of constitutional limits or restrains designed to guarantee all citizens the
enjoyment of certain individual and/or collective rights and discharge their
expected legal and moral responsibilities.
2. Democracy denotes that form of government in which the governing
power of the state is legally vested, not in any particular class or
classes, but in the members of societies or communities as whole
3. Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the
people. (Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (1863).
 a gov’t of the people: means the government should come and should
be elected from the people of that country.
 By the people: refers the government of the country in question should
come to power by the will of the people
 For the people: means the government should profoundly do its best in
the interests of the people of a country in question.
Class work: Who are the people? In what sense should the people
rule? And how far should popular rule extend?
4. Democracy can also be understood as the institutionalization of freedom
and Rights.
This is to mean that:
(A). Democracy is a set of fundamental ideas and principles, and a set
of procedures and practices about rights and freedom,; and
(B). It also implies organizing of agencies that persistently and
constantly watch the respect of and promotion rights and freedoms;
5. Democracy is also about peaceful management and resolving of conflict.
 Conflict is a natural reality, it exist inevitably and would exist in the future. No
one can avoid conflict but can only be minimized the potential inevitability of
conflicts through preventive and curative approach.
 In this regard, democracy composed of values of tolerance, cooperation,
cooperative negotiation, compromise consensus, compassion, civility,
pragmatism, open –mindedness, etc.
 This values are instruments to resolve differences and even violent
conflicts peacefully and legally and in a civilized ways.
6. Democracy can also be understood as a way of living, peaceful co-
existence and working together.
 Democracy is essentially, evolutionary, not static process.
 As ideals of democracy, the management of one’s affair and citizen’s
responsibility in self– government is an essential element.
 Citizens are expected to conceive and apply democratic ethic for
successful self-governance both at individual and collective level.
 democracy is not only about enjoying rights and freedoms of individuals
and groups but also it is about effective and persistent discharging of
• Given the above for granted, it worth mentioning that, as a universal form of
rule with specific manifestations in time and space, democracy is
scrupulously a political concept founded on three underlying ideas.
namely, democracy as a moral value; as a social process; and as political
Practice.
1. DEMOCRACY AS A MORAL VALUE
 Democracy is above all a moral value or imperative; that is, a basic human
need, a necessity, and therefore, a political demand of all freedom loving
human beings.
 What, then, is this imperative: It is basically permanent aspiration of
human beings for freedom, for better social and political order, one that is
more human and more or less egalitarian.
 In the end, it should be emphasized that as a moral imperative, democracy
implies tolerance, cooperation and mutual respect for all sorts of diversity.
2. DEMOCRACY AS A SOCIAL PROCESS
 Like any human construction, democracy is never perfect.
 It is a continuous Process of promoting equal access to fundamental
democratic and human rights and Civic rights and liberalities for all.
3. Democracy as Political Practice
 Democracy as political practice or a form of rule refers to a specific
manner of organizing or exercising power in accordance with
certain guiding universal norms and principles. There are two levels
at which this can be examined. These are:
A. At the Level of Norms and Principles
 There are many universal of democratic governance.
 Popular sovereignty. The idea that legitimate authority emanates from the people
 The concept Rule of law. implies that everything is done in conformity with the
law
 The Principle that rulers are chosen by and are accountable to the people. The
element of choice implies that democracy is government by the consent of the
governed.
 The Right of Citizens to Participate in the management of public affairs
 The Right of People to Change a Government that no longer Service their Interests
B. At The Level of the Existence of Institutions and Procedures of
Government
 democracy requires those institutions that likely to help the people fulfill
their deepest as privations, while maximizing their presence in the
• Accordingly, democracy is inconceivable with out free and fair election,
representative government, and an independent judiciary.
• Moreover, these institutions are unlikely to perform in a satisfactory way in
the absence of a vibrant civil society and, a free and responsible press.
 Origin and Evolution of Democracy
• Its roots is from Greek terms demos (people) and kratos (pwr/rule), its basic
literal meaning implies” the rule of the people”, not the monarchies or
aristocrat.
• Democracy first originated in the Greek city state of Athens in the 5th
century B.C (that is 6th B.C 5th B.C ) democracy flourished in Athens
particularly during the years of Pericles leadership.
• And under this leadership, Athens was the leading polis (cit-state) of
ancient Greece.
• Polis (city-states) were small independent communities;
• At the early stage there was direct democracy in which all free male
Athenians participated in deliberation and delusion making.
• in the Athenian city-state things were decided through general
consensus of the concerned bodies through long discussions in a
manner of direct democracy.
• the Athenian democracy had three (3) main components bodies with
their respective rules and procedures, and powers and duties.
 1. The Assembly (Juror)

• The assembly (juror), which was the most central political institution and the
most outstanding feature of the political system of Athens in the 6 th and 5th century
B.C,
• It usually composed of 5,000 to 6,000 members as participants and open to all
adult male citizen over 20 years as seaming that any citizen is capable of holding
public office.
• There is no principle of universal suffrage and not all-inclusive i.e. children
(less than 20 years of age), women, metics (resident aliens), and slaves
were absolutely excluded.
• The assembly was often describbed as “market place of democracy”
because any citizen in the assembly had the right to ventilate his view and
opinions as well as to take part in the debate.
• The assembly was the sovereign body, representing the will of the people,
as parliament does in the modern system.
• Its function was to discuss and decide questions of internal and external
policy, including defense and finance it also supervised the activities of the
magistrates’ citizens who were officials who actively carried out the
• The assembly had 10 (ten) sessions a year, and could be summoned to
special meeting if necessary
• More over, leaders were not elected but chosen by lot. and, the
assemble had been virtually using and practicing simple majority vote
to decide any domestic issue without any leas restriction.
• In association with this, in Aristotle’s the assembly was ”supreme
over all causes”, it (the assembly) was the sovereign body,
unconstrained by a formal constitution or even, in the early decades,
by a body of written law.

The Nome The Tai (500 citizens).

This body, which consisted of 500 citizens, was chooses
by lot (majority) their task is to consider and vote on
change in law by the principle of simple majority vote.
 2. The People’s Court

• The people’s court was one leg of the Athenian democracy that consisted of
up to 6,000 citizens of each of them were above 30 years of age.
• Juries of several hundred people (around 6,000 citizens), again selected by
lot for specific case, from the panel of volunteers, considered law suits
which citizens could-and frequently did –bring against those considered to
have acted against the true interest of the polis.
• The courts functioned as an arena of accountability through which top
figures (including generals) were brought to book besides, a person (citizen)
were not allowed to hold the same office twice and some among the 6,000
chosen citizens were given the power to see and decide a particular case.

The Board’s Of Magistrates

The board’s of magistrates was composed of 1,000
member citizens charged with or given the power to
immurement (enforce) the decisions of the assembly.
 3. The Council
• The task or function was drawing up the assembly’s agenda, organizing and
coordinating of its work, and also supervising the administrative works,
carried out by the magistrates.
• The council was composed of 500 members, chosen annually by lot from a
panel of citizens.
• Members of the council had to be over 30 years of age and were not allowed
to serve for more than two (2) years.
• The president of the council was chosen by lot and could hold office for only
one day in his life.
• In addition to the above three organs of governments, 10 generals were
chosen by the whole people.
• These 10 generals commanded the army and the fleet, and controlled defense
and foreign policy in general but they were not allowed to hold civilian office.
• However, some of the generals had great influence over the assembly.
• They were sometimes regarded as political advisors.
• Since they were re-elected, it was possible of them to continue to hold office
for a number of years and so to become feel political leaders.
• In Athens, there was no professional army.
• Incase of war, every citizen transformed him self into a soldier just by going
home for his shield, spear and his ration.

Aristotle’s Characterization Of Democracy

(1)All to rule over each and each in his turn over all.
(2)Appointment to all offices, except those requiring
experience and skill,
(3)No property qualification for office-holding, or only a
very low one]
(4)Tenure of office should be brief and no man should
hold the same office twice (except military positions.
(5)Juries selected from all citizens should judge all
major causes
(6)The assembly should be supreme over all causes
(7) Those attending the assembly and serving as jurors
and magistrates should be paid fork their services.
We can, therefore, see that Athenian democracy contained several
elements to which we can still relate to day:
 Direct popular participation in politics.
 Political equality (at least for free male adult citizens)
 The notion that government should be responsible to the people
 It invented the idea of citizen-as opposed to subject
On the contrary, the Athenian democracy had certain fatal and
serious flaws. Lets look at these serious flaws.
1. Citizenship was restricted to a small elite: it was birth right of
males whose parents were both citizens themselves. The vast majority
of the adults-including women, slaves, and resident aliens (metics)-
did not qualify.
2. Participation was not in practice as extensive as the Athenians
liked to claim most citizens were absent from most assembly
meetings even after payment for attendance was introduced.
3. Athenian democracy was hardly an exercise in
lean movement.
• It was elaborate, time-consuming, and expensive: an
over-complex method of governing a small, rural
society. Its applicability to modern world is too little
where people usually spend their working hours to
develop and prosper themselves rather than the state
is debatable.
4. The principle of self-government did not always lead
to decisive and coherent policy. Indeed the lack of a
permanent bureaucracy eventually contributed to a
period of infected government after defeat in war.
 1.3. Aspects and postulates of democracy

1.3.1. Aspects of democracy

• Democracy has three aspects. These are the following:
(1) Social aspects of democracy. By social aspect of democracy, it is meant the
removal of any discriminations on the basic of class, caste, creed, color, sex,
ethnicity, race, etc. All men and women, rich or poor, regardless of any class or
caste prejudices are socially equal, and should be treated as such.
(2) Economic Aspect of Democracy. By economic aspect of democracy, it is
meant that the equitable and just distribution of wealth and resources in society
and abolition of glaring disparities or polarization on the basis of wealth.
Economic democracy recognizes the right to work, leisure, fair wages, and
unrestricted right to the enjoyment of life.
(3) Political aspect of democracy. The political aspect of democracy signifies the
provision political rights; namely, the right to vote, the right to contest elections,
the right to hold public office, the right to movement, thought, association, the
right to freedom of conscience, the right to speak, etc. In order to enable
citizens to exercise these and other political rights effectively and persistently,
citizens have to be asserted freedom of speech, association and publication.
• 1.3.2. Postulates of Democracy
• Moreover, in addition to aspects of democracy, have also some
major postulates.
• The following ones are the major postulates of democracy:
(I) An average citizens (man) have enough common sense to
play their part as intelligent citizens.
(II) Citizens are fundamentally honest and they can be expected
to discharge their obligations well:
(III) There are an underlying solidarity of the community; and In
every community there exists a general or common will. So far
as this (the last) postulate is concerned, it is plausible to
programmatically and frankly recognizes the existence of
diverse interest in society.
• Democracy is, therefore, a problem of social balance, and the
dominant ideas of the purpose of democracy at any particular
 Exercising Democracy
Direct Democracy
• It was practiced in City-States of Greece as well as in Rome.
• Direct democracy is a form of self – government in which all adult citizens
participate in collective decisions in a context of equality and open deliberation.
• In a direct democracy:
– The state and society become one
– All adult citizens in a country have a say in a day-to-day governing activities
and reaching collective decisions
• It is a form of democracy in which people without an intermediary of elected
official(s) or representative(s) can participate in the government issues and other
related issues which affect their life in one or other way.
• It is true that direct democracy of the ancient Athenian or Raman type cannot
prevail in modern country- due to:
– The ever growing population size
– Complexity of issues and
– urgent and pressing issues that urgently need decisions.
• Due to these and other related factors it has become impossible and unthinkable to
apply direct democracy in modern times.
• However, there are some forms /or / institutions/ or devices of direct democracy that
have come up and executed in modern:
I. Initiatives: is an arrangement whereby a specified number of voters may prepare
the draft of a law and may then demand that it is either be adopted by the
legislator or referred to the people for acceptance at a general or special election.
If supported by the required majority, then it becomes a law.
II. Referendum: It is a vote of the electoral on issue of public policy such as
constitutional amendment, self-determination, and cession.
 In the case of referendum, the veto power is vested in the hands of the voters
or the people.
 Therefore, while initiative is the sward, referendum is the shield of
democracy.
 So, referendum lives usually in the legislative democracy.
 The main benefit of referendum is to provide double safety – valve. These are:
 Referendum allows a government to put and forward an issue to the
people when for some reason it is hardly possible to come to agreement
and make decision by itself; and
 Where the initiative is permitted, disappointed citizens can use referendum
as a chance to raise issues and criticisms that might otherwise remain
unheard.
III. Plebiscite: Though it is taken as a synonym of “referendum”,
plebiscite means that any important issue that cannot solved by a
government of a given state for some reason should be decided by the
votes of the people.
 Let the decision of the people be final.
 For example, plebiscite was held in 1935 where by some area was
given back to Germany.
IV. Recalling: means that the voters have a right to call back their
elected representative in case they are not satisfied with his/her role
or behavior and then elect someone else instead.
 This system of recall is provided in the electoral law of USSR.
 It also prevails in some states of America.
 Generally, recalling essentially allows voters to demand a
referendum on whether an elected representative should be
removed from office or from representation.
 Indirect /Representative/ Democracy and System of Government

• It looks unthinkable to apply direct democracy today that is why democracies are
representative than direct.
• The principle of indirect democracy allows no longer self – government but elected
government.
• In large and complex societies, people cannot assemble in one place to participate
directly in government.
– Therefore, citizen participate through their representatives;
– the representatives represent the interests and political voices of those who
elected them
– Serve as agents of the citizens
– They are bridge b/n citizen & gov’t
• Representative democracy and system of government are intrinsically related one
another.
• On the basis of this correlation or relations, we can have two types of indirect
democracy or there are two ways of exercising representative democracy. These are:
– Parliamentary Democracy
– Presidential Democracy
1. Parliamentary Democracy
 Applied in a parliamentary system of gov’t.
 In this system people elect their representatives to the legislature and the
government is formed after a parliamentary election.
 Members of the parliament are directly elected by the people.
 The interests of the people are represented in the government via these
representatives.
 Parties that win majority seats shall be the ruling party & elect the PM and the
PM select various ministers and approved by the majority vote of the
parliament.
 He/she elects ministers either from parliament or outside the parliament.
 Executive(E) organ is responsible for the parliament (L); it is only the
members of the parliament who are directly responsible to the people because
they are directly elected by the people.
 There is a fusion of pwr b/n L & E
 Moreover, the fate of executive branch of government is decided by the
approval as well as vote of confidence or vote of no confidence of the
parliament.
 Countries like Britain, Canada, Germany, Italy, Australia, Israel, India, and
2. Presidential Democracy
 Presidential democracy is a form of government, which is chiefly characterized by
separation of powers between the legislative and executive branches of government.
 the members of the two houses are elected separately.
 They are, thus, people’s representatives.
 The members of the legislature and president are accountable to the people as they are
directly elected by the people.
 Countries like USA, Argentina, Mexico, and Costa Rica are well known by this type of
exercising indirect democracy.
Key Features of Representative /Indirect / Democracy
• Representative democracy is characterized by certain set of features. These are
discussed below separately.
A. Universal Adult Suffrage
 all adults of the state should have the right to cast their votes, unless it is restricted
by convincing law of the state
 However, the minimum age of voter may vary from country to country. Eg. 18 in
ethiopia and 20 in Japan
 There should be no artificial restrictions in matters of suffrage based on the factors
of religion, caste, wealth, sex, colour of the skin, language, domicile and the like.
 a very negligible section of the people may be deprived of the privilege of voting on
the grounds of lunacy, heinous crimes, ridiculous, and the like.
B. Free, Fair and Periodic Election
 Elections should take place in specified time interval so that the voters may
choose and change their representative.
 It is necessary that the elections should be free from corruption or rigging of
any kind.
 Let the votes vote in a free and thank manner so as to register their will in
the battle of the ballot box.
C. Roles of Parties and Interest Groups
 There should be a law that allows a multi –party system and a number of
political parties and interest groups in a country to take part in the political
process.
 They may form a healthy public option so as to force the government to run
according to the will of the people.
D. Freedom of Press and Mass Media
 all channels of information should be open so that people may have a correct
image of the news and views about great matters of public concern.
 Freedom of press is an essential part of democracy, so mass media agencies
should be free to play their part in the making of public opinion
 Fundamental Values and Principles of
democracy,
Democratic Values
A Knowledge and understanding of democratic
values provides citizens with a frame of reference
useful in analyzing and evaluating the goals and
operations of their government.
These values are express either directly and/or
indirectly in the country’s basic documents such as
Constitution of state and other specific laws.
1. The public Good
 The concept assumes that the democratic political community as a whole has a set
of values and interest that affect all its members in common.
 These values and interests are usually assumed to be superior to the interests of
particular groups within the political community and are considered essential for
the security, effective solidarity and general welfare of all individuals and groups
within the community.
2. Individual and collective Rights
 All men are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights.
 To deal with this right and to protect the citizen should be aware of the basic
individual rights.
 individuals have certain basic rights that are to effectively protected by
government but also which government should guarantee.
 These are the rights of life, liberty, and property.
A. Right to Life: With few narrowly defined exceptions, the individual’s right to life
is considered inviolable.
B. Right to Liberty: should be considered on unalterable aspect of the human
condition. This right includes the following.
a) Personal Freedom. Individuals should be free from arbitrary arrest and detention and
secure in their persons, homes, and from unreasonable searches and seizures.
 Central to the notion of personal freedom is free to act, to think, and to be live and which
government cannot legitimately invade.
 This realm includes, for example,
 the individual’s rights to freedom of conscience and belief,
 to freedom of association and expression, and
 the right to be let alone.
a) Political Freedom. people have the right to participate freely in the political process.
 This process requires the free flow of information and ideas, open debate and the right of
assembly.
 Elections occur at stated, agreed up on intervals; political candidates and their
supporters should not be subject to arbitrary arrest, harassment and electoral
corruption such as buying votes, intimidation and obstruction of voters.
a) Economic Freedom. Citizens should have the right to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of
private property specified by the constitution without unreasonable governmental
interference.
 Economic freedom include:
 to seeking employment wherever one pleases
 to change employment at will
 to engage in any lawful combination with others in units such as labor unions or
business corporations.
3. Justice
 Justice, another basic value of constitutional democracy, is embodied in the
constitution.
(A) Distributive Justice. is the idea that the distribution of benefits
and burdens in society should be fair. These distributions should
be determined by agreed up on standards such as the application
of the principle of equality.
(B) Corrective Justice. Corrective Justice is the idea that fair and
proper response should be used to correct wrongs and injuries.
(c) Procedural Justice. Is that procedures used for gathering
information and making decisions. Procedures of due process in
the legal system as well as in other governmental institutions
should be guided by such principles as impartiality and openness
of proceedings. Standards of procedural justice may also be
applied in the private sector.
4. Equality
 Directly related to the concept of distributive justice, three notions of equality are of
particular interest.
A. Political equality. Is that all people who attain the status of adult hood have equal political
rights.
B. Social equality. is there should be no social hierarchy at individual and collective level. .
For example, all Ethiopian citizens have and must have, social equality with out any
discrimination.
C. Economic equality. means all citizens and peoples of a country deserve equal and fair
assessment to the national resources services.
 Hence, it can be said that economic equality is foundation for political and legal
equality, and that with out it they will be unrealized ideals.
5. Diversity:
 Individuals and peoples have the right to differ in beliefs and life styles.
 Central to this concept of diversity is the idea that variance in cultural and ethic background,
race, lifestyle and belief is not only permissive but also desirable and beneficial in a
pluralistic society.
6. Truth: Truth as opposed to false hood and truth as opposed to secrecy are the two values in the
constitutional democracy.
 Truth as a value in the first sense declares lying by public officials to be an offense
against the body politic;
 in the second since truth demands disclosure and affirmation of matters that government
often with held in secret, national security.
• In neither of these cases can citizens expect complete truth–telling by
government, since legitimate interests of state may be fatally
compromised by admission and disclosure.
7. Patriotism:
 It is the devotion to one’s country based on, not geography, the
principles and values of constitution of a country and other specific
laws where by people’s solidarity and prosperity is founded up on and
serves as an essential unifying force within the considerable diversity
of pluralist society and facilitates the perpetuation of democratic
institutions.
 Patriotic citizens willingly undertake actions intended to enhance the
common good. They act to protect the country in time of national
danger.
 Fundamental Principles of
1.
Democracy
Popular Sovereignty (Sovereignty of People).
 This refers to the idea that the only legitimate source of government
authority is the consent of the governed.
 The citizen as a whole is the sovereign of the state and holds the
ultimate authority over public officials and their policies.
 Popular sovereignty in democracy assumes the principle of majority
rule, which means that within constitutional limits, majorities should
have the right to make political decisions.
2. The Rule of Law and Supremacy of the Constitution.
 means that both government and the governed are, and must be,
subject to the laws of country.
 Government decisions and actions shall be made according to the
established laws of the country rather than by arbitrary action.
 Moreover, the principle constitutional supremacy puts the
constitution at the highest level in the hierarchy of laws.
3. Constitutional Government.
 the idea that in order to protect the basic rights of the people, government
should be limited both in its scope and in its methods.
4. Separation of Powers.
 the idea that legislative, executive, and judicial powers should be separated
and exercised by different institutions.
 if the gov’t follow federalism pwr should be distributed to the center and
region.
5. Checks and Balance.
 The powers given to the different branches of government are balanced so
that no branch can completely dominate the others.
6. Majority Rule and Minority Rights.
 Majority rule should rule and make decisions and law.
 The idea of minority rights means that decisions made by in accordance with
the principle of majority rule but should not unreasonably and unfairly
infringe up on the rights of minorities.
7. Civilian Control of Military.
 The principle of civilian control of the military is implied in the
constitutional provisions that the head of government or state is the
commander in chief of the armed forces and that parliament has the
power to declare war.
8. Secularism.
 Separation of Religion and State:
– State and religion are separate
– There shall be no state religion
– The state shall not interfere in religious matters and religion
shall not interfere in the state affairs.
9. Power of the Purse.
 This principle in a federal state structure, states that all federal laws
for raising revenue must originate in the Legislative House closest to
the people (the House of People’s Representatives) and be approved
by both Federal Houses.
10. Accountability and Transparency.
 Public participation is an essential element of the principle of accountability
and transparency.
 A public official might be directly accountable to the immediate public
officials, who in turn will be accountable for the higher officials.
 This ladder goes to the people.
11. Fair, Free and Periodic Elections.
 The principal mechanism for translating the consent of the people in to
governmental authority is the holding of periodic, free and fair elections.
 All inclusive election: This means that the election will be held on the
basis of universal suffrage
 By Free and fair election: It is meant that neither law, nonviolence, nor
yet intimidation should prohibit candidates or voters from presenting
their views. In order for the election to be free and fair from any
influence, the casting of votes should be done in a secret ballot.
 Democratic Elections are not Merely Symbolic: They are
competitive elections, in which by citizens who enjoy broad
freedom to criticize government, to express their criticism and to
  Democratic elections must also be periodic. it is meant that regular
elections occur with in prescribed time limits.
12. Peaceful Transition of Political Power.
 Elections ensure that key positions in government will be contested at
periodic intervals and that the transfer of governmental authority is
accomplished in a peaceful and orderly manner.
 This avoids the evil effects of taking political power by force.
13. Accepting the Results of Elections. In democratic elections, there would
be winners and losers of vote to seize political power.
14. Protecting and Sustaining of Human Rights and democratic rights.
 Human rights are those values that reflect respect for human life, and dignity
too.
 In other words, human rights have been defined as “generally accepted
principles of fairness and Justice” or “universal moral rights that belong
equally to all people simply because they are human rights”.
 However, human right can be restricted if they interfere with the rights of
other people.
15. Multi – Party System
Multiparty system refers to a political system that
legally allows and has more than one party politics
to participate in elections.
In multiparty democracy, people of different views
and various ethnic groups will co-existing in the
same state to live together, improve their
development, and promote their prosperity and
welfare.
 Merits or Advantages of Democracy

• It is not beyond imagination that democracy has attained a marked

popularity in the world. The following are some major advantages of
democracy.
A. Democracy Creates an Efficient Form of Government
 Important test for weakness and strength of gov’t is its efficiency.
 It is rightly said that “popular election, popular control and popular
responsibility” are more likely to ensure a greater degree of efficiency than
any other system of government.
 Self-government includes the masses to be disciplined, inculcates in them a
sense of responsibility and makes them legal and devoted citizens.
B. Democracy Upholds Individual and Collective Rights
 Democracy recognizes the worth of the individual and groups and assures
them that they will be given an opportunity to contribute their part in the
development of society.
 Democracy is very much sensitive to the wishes of individual citizens and
groups.
 C. Democracy Assures Equality
 Undoubtedly, equality is a central attribute of democracy.
 Democracy stands for equality both in the political, social, economic and
cultural spheres. It assures the right to vote, the right to contest election, the
right hold public office, the right to freedom of association, publication,
movement, freedom of thought, petition, etc without any discrimination on
the basis of status, color, belief, sex, ethnicity, etc.
D. Democracy Educates the Masses
 Democracy has been truly considered a large-scale experiment in public
education.
 Election campaigns, for instance, are in a sense educational.
E. Democracy Promotes Constitutional Patriotism
 Constitutional patriotism refers to citizen’s strong commitment or alignment
with democracy and human rights, or the strong devotion or for one’s
country based on the basis of constitution and other laws of the country as
well as the social and moral values of society of the country where the
society’s solidarity is founded up on.
 F. Democracy Ensures a Stable Form of Government
• Government stability is a fundamental condition not only for the
maintenance individual and group security but also for the achievement of
overall development of the country in question. Democracy should be
protected from the danger of instability and revolution.
G. Democracy Promotes Order and Progress
• Dictatorship assures order, but progress tends to be either ignored or the
progress does not become sustainable.
• Democracy is the only and the best form of government to maintain peace
and order in the country in question.
• Democracy also aims at making people proportions and enables them to
make progress in various aspects of life.
H. Democracy Promotes People Representation
• In a country where democracy is practiced, efficiency is not enough.
• A government by specialists warps intellect and develops a stereotyped
mentality amongst those who hold the power of government.
• Democracy, however, is able to make use of the expert advice of specialists
work at the behest of the popularly elected function arise.
 I. Democracy Serves as a School for Citizenship
• One of the actual advantages of a democracy is that it serves
as a training school for citizenship.
• It assures the right to vote and the right to contest elections,
etc.
• Exercising vote properly and contesting election successfully
give training in citizenship. No other form of government
assures such an opportunity. Thus, “The most important point
of excellence which any form of government can possess is to
promote the virtue and intelligence of the people themselves
and the first consideration in judging the merits of a
particular form of government is how far they tend to foster
intellectual and moral qualities in the citizens.”
Contending Theories
Democracy
 Lesson One: Major Contending Theories of Democracy

• The study of theories of democracy essentially

includes many theories on democracy.
• Broadly speaking, theories of democracy can be
grouped into two categories or parts. These are
– liberal theory and
– Marxist/socialist theory of democracy.
• The aforementioned and identified theories of
democracy are too broad. For the sake of
convenience, here in this part, we will look at these
theories and they sub-part (sub-categories) as
details as possible.
 Liberal Democracy

• There is continuous controversy over the desirable theory of democracy.

• In this regard, there is a broad, even worldwide, acceptance of a particular theory or
model of democracy.
• This theory is generally termed as liberal democracy. There are certain central
features of liberal democracy.
A. Liberal democracy is an indirect and representative form of democracy
• Political office is gained through success in regular elections that are conducted on
the basis of formal political equality.
• The representative nature of liberal democracy is merely a way of deciding who
shall decide on behalf.
B. Liberal democracy is based on competition and political pluralism
• These are achieved through political pluralism, tolerance of a wide range of
contending beliefs, and the existence of conflicting social philosophies and rival
movements and parties.
C. Liberal democracy is a reflection of limited government
• Liberal democracy is a compromise which seeks to combine the authority of
democratic governments with limits on the scope of powers and functions, and
actions.
 D. In liberal Democracy there is Clear Boundary Between State and
Society
 In liberal democracy, civil society and state are clearly distinguished.
 This distinction is maintained through the existence of autonomous groups
and interests, and the markets or capitalist organization of economic life.
• Nevertheless, liberal theory of democracy is a subject to different interpretations.
• As a result of this, there is a considerable amount of disagreement about the
meaning and significance of liberal democracy. Therefore, this theory of democracy
is likely classified on the basis of some significant questions. These questions are;
– Does liberal democracy ensure a genuine and healthy dispersal of political
power?
– Do democratic processes genuinely promote log-term benefits, or are they self-
defeating in liberal democracy?
– Can liberal democracy accommodate political equality with economic
inequality?
• On the basis of these questions, liberal theory of democracy is interpreted in
different ways by different theorists. The most important of these interpretations are
advanced in the form of the following forms of liberal democracy:
• Classical liberal theory of democracy.
• Neo-liberal theory of democracy.
 Classical Liberal Theory of Democracy
• Classical liberal democracy, also known as traditional liberal theory of
democracy, is best defined and explained by the following salient features:
A. Power is vested in and exercised by the people
• people exercise power via their elected representative and their chosen
representatives are accountable to them
• This in practical terms means the will of the majority.
• Thus, it stands on the premise that “people are always right” (in theory), or
the “decision of the majority is always correct” (in practice).
B. The people have certain natural and inalienable rights
• which the government cannot abrogate or diminish.
• This presupposes people derive from Adam and are endowed with certain
natural rights of liberty, property, freedom of conscience, and equality in
political privilege.
• This also asserts that “all men are naturally born free” and from this
principle it is derived that “the liberty and right of free-born men to be
governed as seems them best.
 C. Democracy alone ensures prevalence of the “general will”
 In every community, there is a section of really selfless and enlightened
people who think in terms of public interest and it is the inherent force of
their selfless arguments that ultimately prevails in any matter under
discussion before a body of the people.
 Through the process of cancellation good would set aside the bad.
Therefore, all contradictions would be resolved and in the end any
“dominant good” would emerge.
 This good, which would be what was left at the will of all becomes
integrated, would be in effect the same as the general will.
D. Democracy has no substitution in terms of excellence
• democracy has no substitution in terms of excellence.
• Every form of government has its merits and demerits. But peculiar is
the case the democracy where merits far out weight its demerits.
• Generally, classical liberal theory of democracy has been part a theory
of certain original and natural rights of man. Thus, it has a view that
government is made in virtue of those rights and must conform to
them.
 Merits of the Classical Liberal Theory of Democracy

1. It is a fact that the forms and phrases of classical democracy

are for states associated with events and developments in
their history which are enthusiastically approved by large
majored.
 Under these circumstances, a democratic revolution has meant the
advent of freedom and decency, and democratic creed meant a
gospel of reason and betterment.
2. Classical liberal democracy provides an effective mechanism
for talking and implanting decisions whether it is a small and
primitive society or a big and industrialized society.
3. The politicians appreciate a phraseology that flatters the
masses and offers an excellent opportunity not only for
evading responsibility but also for crushing opponents in the
 Demerits of Classical Liberal Democracy

1. It is thoroughly normative. It is loaded with high ideals and

bombastic propositions like “general will”, “people’s rule”,
‘people’s power’, a common good” and the like that cannot
be subjected to empirical verification. All these terms are
quite elusive.
2. It attaches no importance to the role of numerous interest
groups and organizations that play their part in the struggle
for power, or which compete among themselves and that all
constitutes the stuff of a democratic system in practice. It is
a utilitarian talk.
3. The socialists and the Marxists have their own version of
democracy that stretches the system of political democracy
into social and economic spheres. To the Marxists, it is all
 Neo- Liberal theory of Democracy
• The Neo-Liberal theory of democracy, which is also known as the
empirical theory of democracy, is a modification, not a mutilation, of
classical or traditional liberal theory of democracy with a view to
approximate to reality what it seeks to profess.
• Neo-liberal democracy instead prefers to develop an explanation about
the nature and working of democracy with the use of a new vocabulary
loaded with casual and practicable implications.
• An attempt may also be seen in the direction of narrowing down the
gulf between the liberty of the individual and the authority of the state
in a democratic setup.
• Thus, instead of treating the two as basically anti-theatrical terms, the
neo-liberals like to establish a sort of happy and workable compromise
between them.
• Moreover, it is taken into account that although democracy may be
available in many countries of the world, it differs from place to place
so that a uniform theory of democracy of universal application cannot
 Salient Feature of the Neo-Liberal Theory of Democracy

A. Democracy has different forms of its own in different parts of the world.
• Neo-liberal theory of democracy claims the first step in democracy is to dispel the
illusions of democracy always stands for that which is good and virtuous about a
political system.
B. It recognizes the principle of natural equality of human being reservation
• It accept the principle or doctrine of natural equality of human being but with a
reservation.
• Though they do not frankly subscribe to the rule of natural inequality of
mankind, as stressed by Aristotle, they make dexterous attempt to do so by
sticking to the practical side of things.
• According to this theory, “democracy implies some commitment to political
equality, not an absolute equality, since any form of rule necessarily involves
some political inequality.
• However, this inequality is in the sense of no race, class, or individual being
arbitrarily deprived of the opportunity of participating in the political process”.
• It is, of course, almost a truism to say that democracies will vary in the extent
to which the idea of equal political participation is approached.
C. Democracy is neither the rule of all nor the rule of many
• An inference from the above would be that democracy is neither the rule of all, nor
of many, rather it is the rule of a section of the political people.
• It attempts to harmonize the “law of oligarchy” with the premise of the rule of the
people”.
• the democratic method is that institutional arrangement for arriving at political
decisions in which individuals acquire the power through election by people to
decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote.
D. The neoliberal democracy rejects the doctrine of nature as rights
• Neo-liberal theory of democracy argues that unstained and also
unsustainable by any possible evidence and without practical value in
solving any of the actual problems of political life.
• Particularly, this theory attacks is directed against the democratic
assumptions as to “the equality of men in political capacity”.
• what is decisive is the case of position and role of man in a “market
society”, a society governed by free market principles.
• The merit of democracy is that it opens doors for all to enter into the arena
of organizations of a “plural society” play their part for the sake of
protecting and promoting their needs and interests. Democracy is thus
E. It gives high credit for numerous political parties, civil society, and
interest groups/ pressure groups
• It argues that a realistic theory of democracy must frankly highlight
the role of numerous political parties, civil society, and interest groups
(pressure groups).
• It also equally admits their techniques and tactics for the protection
and promotion of their specific interest.

• In simple terms, it means that all people may be having equal rights in
theory; but they are quite different due to their natural capacities.
• Thus, all the people cannot rule all in the interest of all.
• The principle of democracy then merely means that the reins of
government should be handed to those who command more support
than do any of the competing individuals or parties.
• And this, in turn, seems to assure the standing of the majority system
within the logic of the democratic method, although it might be
condemned it on grounds that lie outside of that logic.
 Critics of Neo-Liberal Theory of Democracy

The major drawbacks of classical liberal are discussed below;

1. It essentially discards the place of norms and goals in the
operation of a democratic system.
 It takes things in their cross materialistic forms, and thereby
takes away the freshness of the idea of democracy that comes
from its normative sense or version.
2. It seems vulgar instrument for the justification of the
discredited bourgeois system in which society is taken as a
multitude for numerous interests competing and conflicting
with each other.
• This theory of democracy gives less room for prevailing
economic inequalities and does into call for social and
economic justice in a free and humanistic order.
 Pluralists Liberal Theory of Democracy
• The term Pluralist democracy is sometimes used interchangeably with liberal democracy
to indicate a democratic system based on electoral competing between a numbers of
political parties.
• But, more specifically, pluralistic democracy refers a form of democracy that
operates through the capacity of organized groups and interests to articulate
popular demands and ensure government responsiveness.
• As such, it can be seen as an alternative to parliamentary democracy and to any
form of majority rule.
• Pluralist theory of democracy believes in the system of limited political
participation.
• An open society or a pluralist society recognizes the existence of various
interests of the people and their groups formed for the sake of protecting and
promoting their specific interests.
• That is, it depends upon the fact that “a man’s skin is closer to him than his/her
shirt’’.
• And so men think more carefully, as a rule, about their immediate concerns than
about their general welfare: they are more likely to perceive their own interest in
• According to this theory, the government comprises of
groups representing within its framework broader social
processes, as well as interests and claims. Thus, making
available to outside groups a number of points of access
at which it is open to influence.
• Therefore, pluralist democracy means a political system
in which policies are made by mutual consultation and
exchange of o
• pinions between various groups.
• Thus, for pluralist liberal theory of, democracy, apart
from being a rule of the people, or of the majority, is a
socio-political system in which the power of the state is
shared with a large number of private groups, interest
organizations and individuals represented by such
• Pluralism, as the name indicates, is a system in which political power is
fragmented among branches of government; it is, moreover, shared between
the state and a multitude of private groups and individuals.
• The concept of pluralism is understood in two different ways.
– In its broader sense, pluralism is a belief in or a commitment to diversity
or multiplicity.
• As a descriptive term, pluralism may be used to denote the
existence of party completion (political pluralism), multiplicity of
ethical values (moral pluralism), or a variety of cultural norms
(cultural pluralism).
• As a normative term, it suggests that safeguards individual’s liberty
and promotes debate, argument, and understanding.
– More narrowly, pluralism is a theory of distribution of political power.
• It holds that power is widely and evenly distributed or dispersed in
society rather than concentrated in the hands of an elite (elites) or
ruling class.
• In this form, pluralism is usually seen as a theory of “group politics” in
which individuals are represented largely through their membership of
organized groups, and all such groups have access to the policy-process.
• The burden of the argument of the pluralists is that:
– the state must recognize the personality and autonomy of social groups and
allow them to take part in the political process of a country.
– The main function of the state is to deal with social conflicts in a way that
the competitive struggle for power is regulated.
– The state is the harmonizer of social relations it is the adjuster of conflicting
social norms.
– The groups fill up the gap between the individuals and social and political
systems. It is through their leaders that such groups mediate between
individuals and all organized forms of power. In this way, government is
kept close to people, and decisions benefit from the skill and interest which
such groups provide. There, the pluralist theory puts that:
• The conditions for a healthy pluralist theory of democracy include the
following:
– There is a wide dispersal of political power among competing groups, and
specifically, elite groups are absent;
– There is a high degree of internal responsiveness, with group leaders being
accountable to members; and
– There is a neutral government machine that is sufficiently fragmented to
 Some Major Critics of Pluralists

A. It undermines the sovereign post on of the state by laying too much on

the personality and autonomy of social groups. It forgets the salient fact
that the state alone can deal with the conditions of anarchy in which the
hands of some rebellions and irresponsible groups may be traced.
B. It heavily concentrates on the role of elites: The iron law of
oligarchy stands to demonstrate the point that elites control power
and power shifts among them.
C. The relationship between pluralism and democracy may not be
secure one. The systems of rule by multiple minorities simply have
been a device to prevent the majority (the property less masses) form
exercising political power.
D. Another problem is the danger of what has been called “pluralist
stagnation”. This occurs as organized groups and economic
interests become so powerful that they create a log jam, resulting in
the problem of government “overload”. In such circumstances, a
pluralist system may simply become ungovernable.
E. Unequal ownership of economic resources. There
is the problem notably that the unequal ownership of
economic resources tends to concentrate political
power in the hands of the few and deprive it from
the many.
 Elitist Theory of Democracy
• The term elite originally meant, and still mean, the highest, the best, or the
excellent.
• Used in a neutral or empirical sense, however, elitist theory refers to rule of
minority. Minority here is understood in terms of handing power, wealth or
privilege, or otherwise.
• The term elitism has different manifestations or forms.
– Normative elitism is the one that suggests that elite rule is desirable and
inevitable.
• In other words, elitism claims political power should be vested in the
hands of a wise or enlightened minority.
• Classical elitism claimed to be empirical and it saw elite rule as being
inevitable, and an unchangeable fact of social existence.
– Modern elitism has also developed an empirical analysis, but it is more
critical and discriminating about the causes of the elite rule.
• This theory of democracy is a reinterpretation of the liberal theory of
democracy in a strictly empirical direction.
• This theory lies on the rule of the elites. It discards the
normative expressions like “voice of the people” or rule of the
people or the general will” and it stands for the “rule of the
chosen few” with the consent or acquiescence of the many.
• For this stand, elitists give justification that even if all men are
taken equal according to the Biblical injection of “Father Hood
of God and brother hood of man”, some are more equal than
others.
• Elitists also argue that inequality is a universal fact making
every political system rule of few or “oligarchic”, though in
varying degrees.
• Thus, the elitists would say that all people are always governed
by elites, or by “a chosen elements of the population”. In this
sense, democracy is the government of the people in theory, in
practice it is the “government of elites”.
• In democracy, people’s participation in politics is
limited to some activities. In this sense, the people
may participate or they may think they participate in
political process, but in reality, their influence is
largely limited to elections.
• The elitist theory of democracy should be taken as
peculiar mixture of the classical theory of
democracy and aristocracy
– It has a democratic content in that it accepts residence of
power in the people;
– its aristocratic content lies in its assertion that only a few
persons under a leader are capable of exercising power.
 Focus
Elitists critically divide every political system is
divided into two groups-
1. The elite group: This group is a collection of
few individuals who are more equal. The elites or
the political entrepreneurs have ideological
•
commitments and manipulative skills, and
2. The ordinary group: This group is a collection
of the masses at the grassroots level. It includes
citizens at large, the masses or the political clay of
the system, a much larger class of passive, inert
followers who have little knowledge of public
affairs and even less interest.
 Critiques of Elitist Theory

A. It is more of conservative: in that it affirms that in

case the uninformed masses participate in large
numbers, the network of democratic restrains will
break down and peaceful competition among the
elites would become impossible.
B. It discards the moral and ethical aspect of
democracy: The elitist theory of democracy
discards moral or ethical aspect of democracy that
is so powerfully stressed by the classical theory of
democracy.
 Chapter - Four

Election and Electoral System

Lesson one: The Issue of Election
4.1. Election Defined
4.2. Democratic Election
4.2.1. Featured of Democratic Election
4.3. Difficulties with Election
4.4. Types of Election
Lesson two: Electoral System
4.5. Electoral System Defined
Lesson Three: Issues of Voting Behavio
r
4.5. Voting Behavior Defined
 Meaning of Election
• An election is a formal decision-making process
by which a population chooses an individual to
hold public office.
• Electoral reform describes the process of
introduce- ing fair electoral systems where they
are not in place , or improving the fairness or
effectiveness of existing systems.
• Psephology is the study of results and other
statistics relating to elections (especially with a
view to predicting future results).
 Cont’d
• Origin of election - were used as early in history as ancient
Greece and ancient Rome,
• Medieval period
• To select rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor and the
Pope.
• In Vedic period of India, the raja (chiefs) of a gana (a tribal
organization) was apparently elected by the gana.
• Ancient Arabs also used election to choose their caliph,
Uthman and Ali, in the early medieval Rashidun Caliphate.
• The modern "election", which consists of public elections
of government officials, didn't emerge until the beginning
of the 17th C when the idea of representative government
took hold in North America and Europe.
 Cont’d
• Early elections in countries such as the UK & the
USA were dominated by landed or ruling class
males. However, by 1920 all Western European and
North American democracies had universal adult
male suffrage (except Switzerland) and many
countries began to consider women's suffrage.
• The question of (suffrage) who may vote is a
central issue in elections, especially suffrage for
minority groups, have dominated the history of
elections. The electorate does not generally include
the entire population;
 Cont’d
• Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country, though
further limits may be imposed. However, in the European
Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the
municipality and is an EU citizen; the nationality of the
country of residence is not required.
• Though, the modern election has a relatively long history
especially in North America and European countries.
• In Ethiopia it had been started in near past decades. During
the imperial/monarchial regime and the Derg government
there had no public election guaranteed to the citizens.
However, following the demise of military regime in 1991,
the event commenced the start of democratic system in
Ethiopia.
 Cont’d
• Smooth political transitions after elections are
essential. In a healthy democracy, candidates
who lose elections relinquish power gracefully
and peacefully.
• In a true democracy, the rule of law, democratic
political institutions, and independent civil
society organizations have undeniable role in
awaking people and controlling elections and
making them democratic that help ensure
respect for electoral outcomes.
 Features of Democratic Election
• What are the key characteristics that make up
democratic election?
• Democratic elections are not merely symbolic.
...They are competitive, periodic, inclusive,
definitive elections in which the chief
decision-makers in a government are selected
by citizens who enjoy broad freedom to
criticize government, to publish their criticism,
and to present alternatives ”
 Cont’d
• Democratic elections are competitive. Opposition parties and
candidates must enjoy the freedom of speech, assembly, and
movement necessary to voice their criticisms of the
government openly and to bring alternative policies and
candidates to the voters.
• Democratic elections are periodic/definitive. There must be
prescribed intervals for holding office.
• Democratic elections are inclusive. All eligible adult
population.
• Democratic elections are free - when citizens have the right to
choose from several candidates or parties that can run for the
election without any restriction.
• Democratic elections are, therefore, public and transparent.
 Cont’d
• In a democratic election points like franchised (legitimate) voter,
eligible candidate (who can be eligible to hold an office),
nomination, and who is elected must have considered and got legal
definition.
i) Who can Get Franchise to Vote (Who can Vote)
• The issue of who may get franchised to vote is a central issue in
elections. The electorate doesn’t generally include the entire
population;
• Suffrage or political franchise is a civil right to vote. Historically
many groups have been excluded from the right to vote. This
exclusion was based on race or ethnic group, gender, religion,
social class, age or the stay in a prison or mental institution.
• For instance, in the democracy of ancient Athens women,
foreigners, and slaves were denied of voting right.
• The original United States constitution only guaranteed the right of
white male property owners to vote.
 Cont’d
• By the early 19th C, the first movement toward
Universal Suffrage occurred. Even though, the
first women’s suffrage was already granted in
1776 in New Jersey,
• Today Universal Suffrage means the extension
of voting privilege without distinction based on
race, sex, belief, or social status. This however
does not mean that everybody is allowed to
vote. In all modern democracies there is an age
limit, mostly between 15-21 years.
 Cont’d
iii) Nomination
• Non-partisan system tends to differ from partisan systems with
regards to nominations.
• In a direct democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy any
eligible person can be nominated.
• In some non-partisan representative systems (example
administrative elections of the Baha’I faith), non-nomination (or
campaigning, electioneering, etc) take place at all, with voters
free to choose any person at the time of voting- with some
possible exceptions such as a minimum age requirement in the
jurisdiction.
• As far as partisan systems are concerned, in some countries,
only members of a particular political party can be nominated.
Or, an eligible person can be nominated through a petition;
 Cont’d
• iv) Who is Elected?
• The government positions for which elections are held vary
depending on the conditions.
• In a representative democracy, such as the United States, some
positions are not filled through elections, especially those
which are seen as requiring a certain competency or excellence.
• For example, judges are usually appointed rather than elected
to help protected their impartiality. There are exceptions to this
practice, however; some judges in the United States are elected,
and in ancient Athens military generals were elected.
• In some cases, as, for example, in soviet democracy there may
exist an intermediate tire of electors between constituents and
the elected figure.
 4.3. Difficulties with Election
• As we can empirically observe in the world elections can be
manipulated, according to the political interest of governing
parties.
• Though, countries claim to hold free, faire, and a competitive
election, the practice is contrary to the claim. Especially, in Africa
elections are subject to fraud and found to be pseudo-elections.
Among those major factors that put hurdle on election are:
I. Show election
• While all modern democracies hold regular elections, the contrary
is not true, not all elections are held by true democracies. Some
governments employ other ‘behind-the scenes’ means of
candidate selection but organize a shame process that appears to
be a genuine electoral contest, in order to present the façade of
popular consent and support.
 Cont’d
• Dictatorships, such as the former Soviet Union, have been
known to hold such show elections.
• In the single candidate type of show-election, there may only be
one candidate for any one given position, with no alternative
choices for voters beyond voting ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to this candidate.
• In the ‘fixed vote’ type of show election such elections may
offer several candidates for each office. In both cases, the
government uses intimidation or vote-rigging to ensure a high
‘Yes’ vote or that only the government-approved candidates are
chosen.
• Another model is the ‘false-diversity’ type of show-election in
which there may be several choices, all of which support the
status quo.
 II. Bias and Limited Options
• Similar to the false-diversity elections are those in which candidates are
limited by un-democratic forces and biases. The Iranian system of governance
is one example of elections among limited options.
• Simply permitting the opposition access to the ballot is not enough. In order
for democratic elections to be fair and competitive, opposition parties and
candidates must enjoy the rights to freedom of speech, freedom of assembly,
and freedom of movement which are necessary to voice their criticisms of the
government openly and to bring alternative policies and candidates to the
voters.
• In addition, elections in which opposition candidates are not given access to
Radio, Newspaper and Television coverage are also likely to be biased. An
example of this kind of structural bias was the 2004 re-election of the Russian
president Vladimir Putin.
• there are more suitable and systemic forms of ‘false-diversity’ in elections
which are not generally recognized. In the West and, especially in the US,
powerful corporate interests behind the media act as a filter that, statistically,
only lets preordained views be heard by the public and exclude third parties
and alternative viewpoints.
 III. Corruption of Democracies
• The very opens of democracy means that in many states it is
possible for voters to vote to get rid of democracy itself.
• Democracies have failed many times in history from ancient
Greece to 18th and 19th Century France (e.g., Second Empire
under Napoleon III), and perhaps most famously in 20th century
Germany, when the Nazis initially came to power by democratic
means (albeit by plurality vote) using the Enabling Act.
• Throughout most of the developing world today democracies
remain un-stable, often collapsing to military coups or other
forms of dictatorship.
• Thinkers such as Aristotle and many others long believed
democracy to be inherently unstable and to always quickly
collapse.
 Types of Election
• In most democratic political systems, there are a range of different
types of elections, corresponding to different layers of public
governance or geographical jurisdiction. Some common types of
elections are:
• General election
• Presidential election
• Primary election
• By-election
• Local election
• Co-election
• Reelection
• Referendum
• Among the above mentioned elections, elections that conducted in
Ethiopia are the following: General election, Local election, By-
election, Reelection & Referendum
 a) General Elections
• In Ethiopia General elections are held to elect
members of the House of Peoples' Representatives
or State Councils and conducted every five years.
• In this regard, General elections shall be
conducted throughout the Country simultaneously.
However, where the Board finds it necessary and
decided by the House of Peoples' Representatives,
it may be conducted at different times.
 b) Local Elections
• Electoral Law, 2007, defined Local elections as elections to
zonal, Woreda (district), city, municipality and sub-city or
Kebele councils conducted in accordance with the law.
• The number of representatives elected in a constituency for a
local election shall be determined by laws of Regional States
on the basis of the type of election and the number of seats in
each council.
• The time to hold local elections also shall be determined in
accordance with the laws of Regional States. Local elections
shall be conducted based on regulations and directives issued
by the Board in accordance with the Proclamation No.
532/2007.
 c) By-election

• This type of election will be conducted if the

councils at different levels request the Board
to replace council members whose mandates
are terminated due to various reasons.
• Therefore, according to the law The Board
shall hold by-election in three months from the
receipt of the request.
 d) Re-election
• The amended electoral law of Ethiopia
asserted circumstances under which reelection
may be required and conducted.
• According to the proclamation Reelection may
be conducted for one of the following reasons:
• a) fraudulent act or disturbance of peace and
order during election process
• b) where candidates receive equal votes
 Cont’d
While conducting reelection:
a) only those voters who had been registered in a
constituency or polling stations where irregularities occurred
shall be eligible to vote without the need to conduct new
voter registration;
b) where it has been decided to conduct reelection, only
those candidates who had been registered earlier shall be
eligible to run for the reelection without the need to conduct
new candidate registration;
c) Campaigning shall be prohibited.
• Particulars of reelection shall be decided by the regulation
or directive to be issued by the Board.
 e) Referendum
1.Referendum is conducted to assess public interest
or make decision when decided by a competent
body in accordance with the Constitution.
2.The Board, in accordance with the directive given
by the body that authorized the referendum, shall
hold the referendum by organizing polling stations
in a way convenient to execute the referendum.
3.Particulars shall be determined by the regulation
to be issued by the Board.
 Electoral System
• a voting system or electoral system - consists of the
set of rules which must be followed for a vote to be
considered valid, and which set out how votes are
cast, counted and aggregated to yield a final result
of an election or a referendum.
• The electoral system determines the “exchange
rate” between votes and seats - that is, how votes
are translated into seats.
• It determines how many votes and what kinds of
votes are necessary to award seats to candidates and
parties in an election.
 Cont’d
• Common voting systems are majority rule, proportional
representation and plurality voting, with a number of variations
and methods such as first-past-the-post and preferential voting.
• Electoral formula determines how votes are counted to allocate
seats.
• There are four main types of electoral system:
1. Majoritarian formulas (including plurality, second ballot, and
alternative voting systems);
2. Semi-proportional systems (such as the single transferable vote,
the cumulative vote, and the limited vote);
3. Proportional representation (including open and closed party lists
using largest remainders and highest averages formula); and,
4. Mixed systems (like the Additional Member System combining
majoritarian and proportional elements).
 1. Majoritarian Electoral Systems
• A worldwide survey found that 83 out of 150
countries were found to use majoritarian
systems.
• This is the oldest electoral system, dating back
at least to the 12th Century, and also the
simplest.
• This category can be subdivided into those
requiring candidates to win a plurality, or an
absolute majority (50+ percent) of votes to be
elected.
 a) Plurality Elections
• Plurality systems, otherwise known as 'first-past-the-post, is used for
election to the lower chamber in 43 countries including the United
Kingdom, Canada, India, the United States, and many Commonwealth
states.
• In 'winner take all', the leading party boosts its legislative base, while
the trailing parties get meager rewards. The focus is effective
governance, not representation of all minority views. The basic
system of simple plurality voting in parliamentary general elections is
widely familiar: countries are divided into territorial single-member
constituencies; voters within each constituency cast a single ballot
(marked by a X) for one candidate; the candidate with the largest
share of the vote in each seat is returned to office; and in turn the
party with an overall majority of seats forms the government. Our
country Ethiopia is also among those countries who have adopted
plurality majoritarian electoral system.
• One feature of this system is that single-member
constituencies are based on the size of the electorate.
• Under first-past-the-post candidates usually do not need
to pass a minimum threshold of votes, nor do they
require an absolute majority to be elected, instead all
they need is a simple plurality i.e. one more vote than
their closest rivals.
• Hence in seats where the vote splits almost equally three
ways, the winning candidate may have only 35% of the
vote, while the other contestants get 34% and 32%
respectively. Although two-thirds of voters supported
other candidates, the plurality of votes is decisive.
• In this system the parties share of parliamentary seats, not
their share of the popular vote, counts for the formation of
government.
• Bangladesh, Botswana, Canada, Congo (Kinshasa),
Democratic Republic of Congo (Brazzaville), Egypt,
Ethiopia, Gabon, United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland, Ghana, Gambia, India, Jamaica, Kenya,
Comoros, Liberia, Marshall Islands, Burma (Myanmar),
Malawi, Malaysia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Seychelles,
Singapore, Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Trinidad and Tobago,
Uganda, United States of America, British, Yemen,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, Zanzibar, are some among around 63
countries that follow pluralist electoral system.
 b) Second Ballot Majority-runoff System
• Other systems use alternative mechanisms to ensure that the winning
candidate gets an overall majority of votes.
• In France the second ballot 'majority-runoff' system is used in elections
for the Presidency.
• Candidates obtaining an absolute majority of votes (50 percent+) in the
first round are declared elected. If this is not the case a second round is
held between the two candidates who got the highest number of votes.
• This system is used in 15 of the 25 countries with direct presidential
elections including Austria, Columbia, Finland and Russia.
• A majority-runoff is also used in legislative elections in Mali and the
Ukraine, and a plurality-runoff is used for the French National
Assembly.
• The aim of runoff elections is to consolidate support behind the victor,
and to encourage broad cross-party coalition building and alliances in
the final stages of the campaign.
 c) Alternative Vote
• Another majoritarian system is the Alternative Vote, which is used in
elections to the Australian House of Representatives and in Ireland for
Presidential elections.
• Australia is divided into 148 single member constituencies. Instead of
a simple 'X', voters rank their preferences among candidate (1, 2, 3...).
To win, candidates need an absolute majority of votes. Where no one
gets over 50 per cent after first preferences are counted, then the
candidate at the bottom of the pile with the lowest share of the vote is
eliminated, and their votes are redistributed amongst the other
candidates. The process continues until an absolute majority is secured.
• This systematically discriminates against those at the bottom of the
poll in order to promote effective government for the winner.
• For instance, Australia, Korea, and Guinea, are countries that use
alternative vote electoral system.
 2. Semi-Proportional Systems
• Semi-proportional systems provide another option,
including the cumulative vote where citizens are given
as many votes as representatives, and where votes can
be cumulated on a single candidate (used in duel-
member seats in 19th Century Britain and in the State
of Illinois until 1980).
• The limited vote is similar, but voters are given fewer
votes than the number of members to be elected (used
in elections to the Spanish Senate). In Japan, until
1994, voters used the Single Non-Transferable Vote
where electors cast a single vote in a multi-member
district.
• Single Transferable Vote
• The system in this category, which continues to be used, is the ‘Single
Transferable Vote’ (STV) currently employed in legislative elections
in Ireland, Malta, and the Australian Senate. Each country is divided
into multi-member constituencies which each have about four or five
representatives. Parties put forward as many candidates as they think
could win in each constituency. Voters rank their preferences among
candidates (1,2,3,4...). The total number of votes is counted, and then
the number of seats divides this total in the constituency to produce a
quota. To be elected, candidates must reach the minimum quota. When
the first preferences are counted, if no candidates reach the quota, then
the person with the least votes is eliminated, and their votes
redistributed according to second preferences. This process continues
until all seats are filled. Ireland and Malta are known with this type of
electoral system.
 3. Proportional Representation
Party Lists Systems
• Where majoritarian systems emphasize governability, proportional systems focus
on the inclusion of minority voices.
• Proportional electoral systems based on Party Lists in multimember constituencies
are widespread throughout Europe, and worldwide 57 out of 150 countries use PR.
• The principle of proportional representation is that the seats in a constituency are
divided according to the number of votes cast for party lists, but there are
considerable variations in how this is implemented in different systems.
• Party lists may be open as in Norway, Finland, the Netherlands and Italy, in which
case voters can express preferences for particular candidates within the list. Or they
may be closed as in Israel, Portugal, Spain and Germany, in which case voters can
only select the party, and the political party determines the ranking of candidates.
The rank order on the party list determines which candidates are elected, for
example the top ten to fifteen names. Party Lists may also be national as in Israel,
where all the country is one constituency divided into 120 seats. But most Party
Lists are regional, as in Belgium where there are seven regions each sub-divided
into between 2-34 seats.
• The electoral formula varies among systems. Votes can be allocated to
seats based on the highest averages method. This requires the number of
votes for each party to be divided successively by a series of divisors,
and seats are allocated to parties that secure the highest resulting
quotient, up to the total number of seats available. The most widely used
is the d’Hondt formula, using divisors (such as 1,2,3etc). The 'pure'
Saint-Laguëmethod divides the votes with odd numbers (1,3,5,7etc). The
'modified' Saint-Laguëreplaces the first divisor by 1.4 but is otherwise
identical to the pure version.
• An alternative is the largest remainder methods, which uses a minimum
quota, which can be calculated, in a number of ways. In the simplest
with the Hare quota, used in Denmark and Costa Rica, the total number
of valid votes in each constituency is divided by the total number of
seats to be allocated. The Droop quota, used in South Africa and Greece,
raises the divisor by the number of seats plus one, producing a slightly
less proportional result.
 4. Mixed Systems
a) Additional Member System
• Lastly many newer systems, such as those recently adopted in Italy, New
Zealand and Russia, use mixed systems, although with a variety of alternative
designs.
• The Additional Member System used in Germany combines single member
and party list constituencies. Electors have two votes. Half the Members of the
Bundestag (328) are elected in single-member constituencies based on a simple
plurality of votes. The remaining MPs are elected from closed party lists in
each region (Land). Parties, which receive, less than a specified minimum
threshold of list votes (5 per cent) are not be entitled to any seats. The total
number of seats, which a party receives in Germany, is based on the Niemeyer
method, which ensures that seats are proportional to second votes cast for party
lists. Smaller parties which received, say, 10 per cent of the list vote, but which
did not win any single member seats outright, are topped up until they have 10
per cent of all the seats in Parliament. It is possible for a party to be allocated
'surplus' seats when it wins more district seats in the single-member district
vote than it is entitled to under the result of the list vote(Saint-Jacques, 1997).
 Lesson 3: Issues of Voting Behavior
• Voting is the act of making decision by taking part in electoral process whereas,
voting behavior is the political attribute of the voter which is determined by
voters’ experience, attitude, political belief, religion, ethnicity, etc. therefore, the
voters voting behavior influences his/her actual voting.
• In a limited way voting refers to the function of electing representatives by
casting votes in elections. However, in broad terms, voting covers as many as
six important functions: -
• 1. It involves individual’s choice of governors or major governmental
policies;
• 2. It permits individuals to participate in a reciprocal and continuing
exchange of influence with office- holders and candidates;
• 3. It contributes to the development or maintenance of an individual’s
allegiance to the existing constitutional regime;
• 4. It contributes to the development or maintenance of a voter’s disaffection
from existing constitutional regime;
• 5. It has emotional significance for individuals; and
• 6. For some individuals it may be functionless i.e. devoid of any emotional
or political significant personal consequences.
• Voting behaviors is not confined to the examination of voting
statistics, records and computation of electoral shifts and swings. It
also involves an analysis of individual psychological processes
(perception, emotion, and motivation) and their relation to political
action as well as of institutional patterns, such as the communication
process and their impact on election. In the words of Plano and Riggs,
“Voting Behaviors is a field of study concerned with the ways in
which people tend to vote in public election and the reasons why they
vote as they do.” The term voting behavior has recently been
expended in meaning and is taken as one major and board area of
study subsumed within the broader designation of political behavior.
It involves a study of human political behavior in the context of
voting in elections. Voting behaviors studies open windows on the
minds of the millions of people who are involved in the political
process as voters.
• An empirical study of the electoral behavior
displays the astounding fact that the behavior
of man is influenced by several irrational
forces. The role of political parties and
pressure groups in invoking religious and
communal factors, influence of money or
charismatic personality of a leader and a host
of other irrational forces have their definite
influence on the minds of the voters.
 4.5.1. Determinants of Voting Behavior
• The behavior of voter is influenced by several factors such
as religion, caste, community, language, money, policy or
ideology, purpose of the polls, extent of franchise, political
wave etc.
• The political parties and groups make use of these
variables for the sake of winning the battle of the ballot
box.
• Despite making their professions for enlightened
secularism, politicians can be found making appeals to the
religious and communal sentiments of the people; they can
also be found involved in exploiting the factors of language
or money to achieve the purpose of emerging successful in
the war of votes.