Cryptography

Activity

What is cryptography ?

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Introduction
Cryptography is the study of Encryption
◦ Greek kryptos means “hidden” and
graphia means “writtings”
Encryption is an ancient form of
information protection. … dates back
4,000 years.
◦ process by which plaintext is converted into
ciphertext.
Decryption is the inverse of Encryption.

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Introduction …
A sender S wanting to transmit message M to
a receiver R
To protect the message M, the sender first
encrypts it into meaningless message M’
After receipt of M’, R decrypts the message to
obtain M
M is called the plaintext
◦ What we want to encrypt
M’ is called the ciphertext
◦ The encrypted output
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Introduction…
Notation
Given
P=Plaintext
C=CipherText

C = EK (P) Encryption
P = DK ( C) Decryption

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 Terminologies

Cryptography: Schemes for encryption and

decryption
Encryption algorithm: technique or rules
selected for encryption.
Key: is secret value used to encrypt and/or
decrypt the text.
Cryptanalysis: The study of “breaking the
code”.
Cryptology: Cryptography and cryptanalysis
together constitute the area of cryptology.
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Encryption vs. C-I-A
Encryption provides :
◦ Confidentiality/Secrecy
 keeps our data secret.
◦ Integrity
 protect against forgery or tampering

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Cryptographic systems
are characterized along three dimensions
operations used for transforming
◦ Substitution: Replace (bit, letter, group of bits letters
◦ Transposition: Rearrange the order
◦ Product :use multiple stages of both
number of keys used
◦ Symmetric: same key , secret-key, private-key
◦ Asymmetric: different key , public-key
way in which the plaintext is processed
◦ block cipher
◦ Stream cipher
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 Transposition and Substitution
security security security

Encryption Encryption Encryption

cusetyri
tfdvsjuz 19 5 3 21 18 9 20 25
Simple Simple Substitution
Transposition

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 Classical Substitution
Caesar Cipher: used by Julius Caesar's
◦ substitutes each letter of the alphabet with
the letter standing three places further down
the alphabet

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Caesar cipher

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 Activity

Convert it ....to Caesar Ciphertext?

Plaintext: are you ready

Ciphertext: duh brx uhdgb

Plaintext a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

Ciphertext D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V WX Y Z A B C

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Caesar Cipher
the algorithm can be expressed as, for each
plaintext letter P, substitute ciphertext letter
C.
◦ C = E(3, p) = (p + 3) mod 26
mathematically give each letter a number
abcde fg hi j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
General Caesar algorithm as:
c = E(k, p) = (p + k) mod (26)
p = D(k, c) = (c – k) mod (26)
 Where k is [1 to 25]. Secret-key 13
 Classical Transposition
Spartans cipher , fifth century B.C.
Start the war today
Encryption: rearrange the text in 3 columns

S t a
r t t
h e w
a r t
o d a
y
Rewrite it by reading down
Srhaoytterdatwta
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 Cryptanalysis
objective to recover key not just message
general approaches:
◦ cryptanalytic attack
 exploits the characteristics of the algorithm
◦ brute-force attack
 try every possible key on a piece of ciphertext
if either succeed all key use compromised

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 Cryptanalytic Attacks
ciphertext only
◦ only know algorithm & ciphertext, is statistical,
know or can identify plaintext . Most difficult
known plaintext
◦ know/suspect plaintext & ciphertext
chosen plaintext
◦ select plaintext and obtain ciphertext
chosen ciphertext
◦ select ciphertext and obtain plaintext
chosen text
◦ select plaintext or ciphertext to en/decrypt
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 More Definitions
unconditional security : An encryption
scheme is unconditionally secure if the
ciphertext generated by the scheme does
not contain enough information to determine
uniquely the corresponding plaintext, no
matter how much computer power or time is
available
computational security
◦ given limited computing resources (eg time needed
for calculations is greater than age of universe), the
cipher cannot be broken
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 Cryptanalysis…
 given a ciphertext Caesar cipher, then a
brute-force is easy performed:
◦ simply try all the 25 possible keys.
◦ Assuming language of the plaintext is known.
Thus, Caesar cipher is far from secure.
◦ Eg: try to break this Caesar cipher
BRXDUHKDFNLQJ

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Monoalphabetic Cipher
ratherthan just shifting the alphabet
could shuffle the letters arbitrarily
each plaintext letter maps to a different
random ciphertext letter
hence key is 26 letters long

Plain: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Cipher: DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZN

Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA
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 Monoalphabetic Cipher Security
now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys
with so many keys, might think is
secure
but would be !!!WRONG!!!
problem is language characteristics,
statistical techniques

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 Brute Force Search
always possible to simply try every key
assume either know / recognise plaintext
impractical if we use an algorithm that
employs a large number of keys.
most basic attack, proportional to key size

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Language Redundancy and
Cryptanalysis
human languages are redundant
letters are not equally commonly used in
English, E is by far the most common
letter
◦ followed by T,R,N,I,O,A,S
other letters like Z,J,K,Q,X are fairly rare
have tables of single, double & triple
letter frequencies for various languages

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English Letter Frequencies

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 Use in Cryptanalysis
key concept - monoalphabetic substitution
ciphers do not change relative letter
frequencies
discovered by Arabian scientists in 9 th century
calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext
compare counts/plots against known values

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Example Cryptanalysis
given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
count relative letter frequencies
guess P & Z are e and t
guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is the
proceeding with trial and error finally get:
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal
but direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow

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 Given this cipher text
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ

 Relative frequency of the letters in the text

P 13.33 H 5.83 F 3.33 B 1.67 C 0.00

Z 11.67 D 5.00 W 3.33 G 1.67 K 0.00
S 8.33 E 5.00 Q 2.50 Y 1.67 L 0.00
U 8.33 V 4.17 T 2.50 I 0.83 N 0.00
O 7.50 X 4.17 A 1.67 J 0.83 R 0.00
M 6.67

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UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
t a e e te a that ee a a t
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
e t ta t ha e ee a e th t a
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
e e e tat e the t
 Continued analysis of frequencies plus trial and error
should easily yield a solution from this point

it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but

direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow.

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Cryptograph cont’…
Playfair cipher
Polyalphabetic ciphers
◦ Vigenère cipher
◦ Vernam cipher
◦ One-timepad
More on Transposition
◦ Rail fence cipher
◦ Message in rectangle ( row transposition )
◦ Rotor machine

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 Playfair Cipher
It is a Polyalphabetic Cipher, a substitution
cipher in which the cipher alphabet for the plain
alphabet may be different at different places
during the encryption process.
A manual symmetric encryption technique
It was the first literal digraph substitution cipher.
◦ The scheme was invented in 1854 by Charles
Wheatstone, but bears the name of Lord Playfair who
promoted the use of the cipher.
Used in WWI and WWII
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 Playfair Key Matrix
a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword
fill in letters of keyword (no duplicates, i & j)
fill rest of matrix with other letters
eg. using the keyword (key) simple

s i/j m p l
e a b c d
f g h k n
o q r t u
v w x y z 30
 Playfair Cipher
 Use filler letter to separate repeated letters
◦ eg. "balloon" encrypts as "ba lx lo on" Encrypt two letters
together

 Same row– >followed letters

◦ If both letters are in the same row, take the letter to the right of each
one (going back to the left if at the farthest right
◦ ac--bd
 Same column–> letters under
◦ If both the letters are in the same column, take the letters below each
one
◦ qw--wi
 Otherwise—>square’s corner at same row
◦ If neither of the preceding two rules are true, form a rectangle with the
two letters and take the letters on the horizontal opposite corner of the
rectangle. 31
 Activity
Q: construct the playfair matrix using the
keyword: MONARCHY ?
Plaintext: Ethiopia
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z

klbfhvs
Ciphertext: b
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 Security of Playfair Cipher
security much improved over
monoalphabetic
But, still has much of plaintext structure.
it can be broken, given a few hundred letters
◦ With ciphertext only, possible to analyse
frequency of occurrence of digrams (pairs of
letters)
◦ Obtaining the key is relatively straightforward if
both plaintext and ciphertext are known.

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Polyalphabetic ciphers

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Polyalphabetic ciphers
using multiple substitution alphabets.
make cryptanalysis harder with more
alphabets to guess and flatter frequency
distribution
use a key to select which alphabet is used
for each letter of the message
◦ use each alphabet in turn
◦ repeat from start after end of key is reached

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 Vigenere Cipher
 simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
meaning that instead of there being a one-
to-one relationship between each letter and
its substitute, there is a one-to-many
relationship between each letter and its
substitutes.
◦ The encipherer chooses a keyword and repeats it
until it matches the length of the plaintext

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Vigenère square or Vigenère table

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 Vigenère Cipher
Basicallymultiple Caesar ciphers
key is multiple letters long
◦ K = k1 k2 ... kd
◦ ith letter specifies ith alphabet to use
◦ use each alphabet in turn, repeating from start
after d letters in message
Plaintext: THISPROCESSCANALSOBEEXPRESSED
Keyword: CIPHERCIPHERCIPHERCIPHERCIPHE
Ciphertext: VPXZTIQKTZWTCVPSWFDMTETIGAHLH
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Vigenère Cipher
write the plaintext out
write the keyword repeated above it
use each key letter as a caesar cipher key
encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter

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Activity
Q: encrypt the given plaintext letter using
Vigenère Cipher use keyword deceptive

plaintext:
wearediscoveredsaveyourself
Key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
Ciphertext:
zicvtwqngrzgvtwavzhcqyglmgj

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Security of Vigenère Ciphers
have multiple ciphertext letters for each
plaintext letter
◦ hence letter frequencies are masked
◦ but not totally lost
start with letter frequencies
◦ see if look monoalphabetic or not
ifnot, then need to determine number of
alphabets, since then can attach each

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Questions?