Corse: B.A (Hons.

) Generic Political Science IV Semester

Paper: Governance: Issues and Challenges
Topic: Environmental Governance
 I. Human-Environment Interaction

• Introduction
Every human endeavor is an outcome of human-environment interaction. The human being has
developed a symbiotic relationship with the environment which has in turn helped them to evolve as
a species. The various ecosystems and habitat adaptions have resulted in the evolution of human
societies. Man stands at a very distinct level of interaction with nature among all living organisms.
The term environment refers to the elements that compose the physical or conceived aspects of
nature, along with their groupings in landscapes and ecosystems, with special reference to that which
is considered ‘the non-human’. The term is indicative of different natural attributes which surround
and actively influence human life and culture. It includes all living as well as non-living worlds.
Human societies in various parts of the world have evolved in distinct ways to deal with the
constraints imposed by the environment. This has led to a human-environment interaction which can
explain their percipience, understanding of their nature as well as various micro-level livelihood
practices.
Human-environment interaction involves the phenomenon of evolution and adaptions. The concept
of human-environment interaction indicates a two-way process of interaction by which both exert
various influences upon each other. Various elements in a particular eco-system have distinct roles.
In a modern context, human beings have assigned themselves the most dominating role in the living
world. Also the role state, development agenda and resource mobilization, and people’s access to
environmental wealth have emerged as some of the important concerns of human-nature interaction.
Theoretical Premises

The theoretical ideals which dominated the nature of human-environment interaction.

Divergent viewpoints emerged to understand and explain the relation between nature and man.
During the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, scholars, especially in the field of geographical
thought, discussed various factors and mechanisms through which human societies develop a
symbiotic relation with their natural surroundings.
Two ideas of environmental determination and possibilism emerged which assign different set of
roles and definitions to human response to their natural habitat.
• Environmental Determinism
Environmental determinism also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism,
espouses the view that cultures have been influenced and shaped by physical conditions, giving a
secondary role to the socio-economic milieu. The proponents of this view believe that humans are
strictly defined by a stimulus-response (environment-behavior) mechanism. Environmental
determinism gives importance to physical environment, especially climatic conditions in deciding
the psychological mind-set of individuals, which in turn defines the behavior and culture of
individuals which influences the culture of the society at large. Thus, deterministic approach
generally considered man as a passive agent on whom the environmental factors are acting and
determining his or her attitude, decision-making processes and lifestyle.
• Possibilism
Very soon, the idea of environment determinism was challenged on the pretext that it
provided theoretical credence to the supporters of imperialism and racism, giving rise to
Euro-centric interpretation of human civilization. Also, there was no scientific data to
prove many of tenets of environmental determinism. It was believed that even almost
same type of physical environmental conditions cannot produce identical civilizations
and cultures. Thus, a need was felt to reinterpret the approach to describe the nature of
human-nature interaction. This gave rise to the possibilist school of interpretation. The
main proponent of this idea was the French Geographer Vidal De La Blasche. He
famously outlined that ‘milieu externe was “a partner not a slave of human activity”;
insisting that “nature is never more than an adviser” and that the milieu interne revealed
man as “at once both active and passive”. Thus, possibilism interprets the role of human
agent in the making of socio-cultural attributes in consonance with the natural forces.
Dimensions of Human-Environmental Interaction

There are many dimensions and areas of human-environment interaction in which human finds
nature playing the most indispensable role. From a primitive tribal society to a highly urban and
industrialized society, nature’s role has always been central. The environment has been a source of
major natural resources and other riches which make up for all human cultural and economic
endeavours.
The three most important activities, namely, agriculture, industries and tourism as primary
exemplifications of human-nature interface.
Human-Nature Interaction: The Indian Perspective

• A Historical Perspective
Elements of environment have been playing a pivotal part in the growth of Indian civilization. Ever since the
advent of first agrarian settlements in Mehargarh (now in Pakistan) to the post-independence economic
planning, utilization of natural resources has always impacted the nature of civilization in the subcontinent.
India is an unique land, in terms of human-nature interaction, from the most primitive tribal societies of
Andaman and Nicobar islands to the most urbanized/industrialized societies of the twenty-first century,
environment has always moulded its role vis-à-vis the needs of the society.
The process of human-environment interaction in the Indian context can be understood in terms of the
various ecosystem services, natural resources and biodiversity offered by the environment to regional human
societies. Classical Indian texts and myths depict ecology as an integral part of man and society. Ancient
treatises on state-craft such as the Arthashastra emphasizes the importance of natural resources of human
beings and espouses the conservation of environment. The Ravi River was used as a line of communication
with its two important resource-distribution centres, Harappa and Mohenjodaro, located on its banks.
The ‘second urbanization’ and the rise of Mahajanpadas in India too had a close connection with the natural
habitat. Especially, the prominence of state of Magadha has been attributed to a combination of various
environmental factors.
• Resource Regions of India
An identification and understanding of various resource-regions of India would help
delineate the role of environment in the Indian context. Thus, differing socio-economic
needs in the Indian context have led to the identification of various resource regions across
the country, both based on agriculture and minerals.
1. The Great Plain
2. The Peninsular Plateau
3. Forests
4. The Coastal region
5. The Himalayas
• The Panorama of Human-Environment Interaction
1. The Issue of Development
2. Food Security
3. Energy Hunger and Environment
II. Green Governance: Moving towards Sustainable
Development
• Major Global Environmental Challenges:
1. Acid rain and regional-scale air pollution
2. Ozone depletion by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other industrial and agricultural chemicals
3. Global warming and climate change due to the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
4. Deforestation, especially in tropics
5. land degradation due to deforestation, erosion, compaction, salinization and other factors
6. Freshwater pollution and scarcities
7. Marine threats, including overfishing, habitat destruction, acidification and pollution
8. Threats to human health from persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals
9. Declines in biodiversity and ecosystem services through loss of species and ecosystems
10. Excessive nitrogen production and over-fertilization
Environmental Governance: International Initiatives:
Concern with the international abuses of rapid industrialization gained momentum in the First World in
the 1960s. There were protests against nuclear weapons and chemical pollution. The World Wildlife Fund
(WWF) was founded in 1961 to preserve global biodiversity. The most significant event that happened
during this period was the publication of “Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson (1962) which attracted the
attention of the people to the impact of development on environment. She explored in her book that the
increasing use of chemicals, particularly pesticides, was killing nature and wildlife.
The year 1972 is a significant year in the history of Green Governance. “The Limits of Growth”,
published in that year, argued that the post-war rate of economic expansion and population growth could
not be sustained without exhaustion of global natural resources, irreparable environmental damage, and
an increase in poverty and malnutrition.
In the same year (1972), the United Nations Conference on Human Environment, held in Stockholm,
provided the first major international opportunity for the South (Third World Nations) to highlight the
links between the prevailing international economic system, environmental degradation and poverty. The
conference is credited with the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNDP).
Sustainable Development: An Alternative Approach to Green Governance
Basic Principles of Sustainable Development:
1. Ecological sustainability
2. Social Justice
3. Inter-generation Equity and Justice
The Earth Summit:
The Brundtland Report prompted the UN General Assembly, in 1989, to approve a follow-up
conference in Stockholm in 20 years’ time to flesh out the concept of sustainable development. The
1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro,
recognized the need to couple together the two issue areas, and was a much larger and more diverse
gathering than in 1972. The Earth Summit at Rio in 1992 brought out five major commitments:
1. The Rio Declaration
2. Treaties on Climate Change
3. Conservation on Biodiversity
4. Forest Principles
5. Agenda 21
Post-Earth Summit Developments:
1. Kyoto Protocol (1997) on Global Warming
2. Johannesburg Conference on Sustainable Development (2002)
3. The United Nations Climate Change Conference (2015)
Indian Perspective to Green Governance:
• The Forty Second Amendment Act of 1976 added two-fold provisions in the constitution:
1. It directed the state for the protection of environment
2. It cast a duty on every citizen to help in the preservation of natural environment.
3. ‘Article 48 A’ of the Directive Principles lays down that ‘the state shall endeavor to protect and
improve the environment and to safeguard forest, and wildlife of the country’.
4. ‘Article 51 A(g)’ specifically refers to the fundamental duty regarding environment.
5. The Directive Principles of State Policy in ‘Article 47’ clearly underlines the environmental
duty of the State to improve public health.
The major and significant Acts in environmental protection in India:
1. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
6. The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995
7. The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997
8. The National Environment Policy (NEP), 2006
9. The Forest Rights Act, 2006
10. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 2010
Suggested Readings:
• Singh, Shivani. 2016 (Ed). Governance: Issues and Challenges. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
• Singh, Abhay Prasad and Krishna Murari.2018. Governance: Issues and Challenges. New Delhi:
Pearson Publications.