X-RAY PHYSICS

Radiation
Generation
 X-RAY PHYSICS

The X-Ray Tube:

This is a typical X-ray tube as used in

diagnostic systems.
Inside the glass envelope, it features a
rotating tungsten anode and, opposite to it,
the cathode filament.
As with vacuum tubes in general, a perfect
vacuum is crucial to the tube`s function
 X-RAY PHYSICS
The Thermionic Cathode
The free electrons required to produce radiation are emitted by
heating-up the filament.
The filament is made from tungsten which allows for extreme
temperatures without vaporizing easily. The amount of electrons
emitted is a direct function of the filament temperature.
The temperature is controlled by the filament current ( 2A ... 4A) .
There is, however, a significant delay in temperature response to the
controlling current. Therefore, when not radiating, the filament is
always kept on a standby temperature just below the point of emitting
electrons.
And shortly before radiation, the filament temperature is boosted up
the value desired. This procedure is called "preparation
 X-RAY PHYSICS
When applying high-voltage (40kV ... 150kV), the electrons emitted
by the cathode are accelerated towards the anode. They
are"charged" with kinetic energy.This energy is released when the
electrons interact with the tungsten atoms of the anode.
Slamming into the anode about 99%
of their kinetic energy is converted into heat,
and only 1% is X-rays,
Or more properly speaking, bremsstrahlung
radiation.The german word "bremsstrahlung
" depicts the nature of this kind of radiation:
The electrons are stopped "bremsen"
to produce radiation "strahlung".
The radiation diverges form the point
of interaction, the focal spot, as shown
 X-RAY PHYSICS
Controlling the Radiation Energy The Effect of Tube Voltage

The nature of bremsstrahlung radiation is to provide the

complete spectrum of X-ray energies up to the value
determined by the tube voltage (e.g. 70kV, left or 100kV,
right image).
All electrons are accellerated equally, and possess the
same kinetic energy. The key, however, is how they
interact with the anode material:
•If an electron passes close by an atom`s kernel, it
gives off all its energy in a single event, and we get
radiation of maximum possible energy, e.g. 100 kilo
electron Volts (keV). This is a rare event, and we get
very little intensity of this energy.
•If an electron flies through the vast space between
the atoms and interacts only in deeper layers, heat is
all we get. This is more likely to happen, and thus we
get 99% of heat.
•If an electron gives off only part of its energy when
interacting in the first atomic layers, we get radiation
of lower energies (keV) but increased intensity as
depicted
 X-RAY PHYSICS

The tube voltage required to produce radiation is stated as kV while the

various energies of the bremsstrahlung spectrum are stated as keV.
Annotation
The measurement of radiation intensity is based on the ability of X-rays to
ionize air, that is to make the air inside a measurement chamber
electrically conductive providing a dose rate proportional current for
measurement..
The unit for dose rate is Gray/s (Gy/s), and
the unit for dose is Gy (Gy).
 X-RAY PHYSICS
Controlling the Radiation Energy Te effect of Tube Voltage

In practice, one must always keep in mind that the

tube voltage selected sets the limit of the energy
spectrum only.
Bremsstrahlung radiation provides always a spectrum
of lower energies with increasing intensity.
Given the same amount of electron flow, a high tube
voltage grants a higher X-ray output as proven by the
graphs.
Compare the 40keV and 60keV intensity in both
diagrams. Equal electron flow is identified by identical
slope of the spectrums.
In the radiographic business, radiation is often called
soft or hard according to their peak energy and their
ability to penetrate soft tissue or hard bones.
•For the corret contrast of a radiograph, the kV
selected must match the organ examined.

Controlling the Radiation Intensity
For production of radiation, the
- tube voltage (kV) determines its energy
and the
- tube current (mA) determines its
intensity
X-RAY PHYSICS
The effect of Tube Current
If one likes to keep the radiation quality, e.g.
100keV and alter the intensity only, the number of
the electrons producing the radiation has to be
altered. The amount of electrons and the
intensity of the radiation are proportionally related.
Technically, the electron flow is what we call the
tube current (IRِ). The tube current is controlled by
the filament current (IH), heating up the filament
and giving off electrons.
•Examination wise, the tube current has to be
adapted to the patient size. A thick patient requires
more tube current than a slim one.
 X-RAY PHYSICS
Rotating Anode The target area (focal spot), the electrons
are slamming into, is heated-up rapidly.
When exceeding a temperature of 3400°C,
the tungsten starts melting, giving off
gases which destroy the vacuum and lead
to tube failure.
To prevent this, the heated-up target area is
continuosly replaced by a cooled-down
area, using a rotating anode. During one
rotation, the heat sinks from the surface to
deeper parts of the anode preparing the
surface for a new onslaught of electrons.
Electrically, the anode is an asynchronous
motor operated by the Anode Starter device
 X-RAY PHYSICS
Anode Rotation
The image shows the anode of a modern X-ray
Focal Track tube.
Due to the continuous heating-up and cooling-
down of the focal spot, the anode surface
becomes rough during use. So, the focal track
can be identified against the shiny
background.
The temperature increase inside the focal spot
area also effects local expansion of the metal
resulting in mechanical stress which may lead
to the anode splitting up. The radial slots in the
anode are intended to relief this stress.
Underneath the metal part of the anode, a
carbon layer is seen, intended to increase the
thermal capacity of the anode
 X-RAY PHYSICS
Tube Assembly
The Tube Housing Operating an X-ray tube is rather dangerous:
1.The ionizing X-rays are emitted all over the place.
2.High voltage, up to 150kV, is applied.
For safe handling, the X-ray tube is placed in a
housing lined with lead to absorb the radiation.
Because of weight restrictions, the lead shielding
cannot be perfect. According to the standards the
leakage radiation must not overpass 1mGy/h at
maximum operating conditions.
For insulation of the high voltage, the tube housing
is filled with insulating oil. Additionly, the oil serves
as a heat sink.
The useful radiation beam leaves the tube housing
via the radiation outlet. Here, you see a cone for
narrowing the oil layer attenuating the useful
radiation. The outlet window is made from
radiolucent material
 X-RAY PHYSICS
Tube Assembly
The Collimator When it comes to radiation protection, the
collimater plays an important role:
It is used to narrow the radiation field to a size
needed for the examination at hand. For this it
is equipped with sets of lead plates providing
either a round or a square-shaped radiation
field.
These collimating plates are either motorized
or operated manually. In automatic mode, the
image-receiver size is detected, and the
collimating plates are operated accordingly.
Memorize following basic rule of radiation
protection:
•The radiation field must never be larger
than the size of the image receiver!
 X-RAY PHYSICS
Radiation Quality
All the radiation absorbed inside the body, without
The Use of Filters having a chance of penetration and forming an
image, is harmful radiation only!
In order to make the radiation "less harmful", filters
are used. The soft radiation is absorbed inside the
filter while the hard radiation passes only slightly
effected.
As seen in the left graph, Aluminum attenuates the
very soft radiation drastically. The radiation
spectrum shown is the result of 100kV tube voltage
in combination with a filtration equivalent to 2.5mm
Aluminum.
According to international regulations, this is the
minimum amount of filtration and must be
guaranteed by the tube assembly.
Additional filtration with copper can be employed to
make the radiation "safer". Notice the shift of the
peak intensity to higher keV by absorbing the lower
energies. So, the radiation quality is hardened-up
by increasing the amount of filtration
 X-RAY PHYSICS

Conclusion

When interacting with

body cells, X-rays are
harmfull!