Module 4

Modern Moral Philosophy

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• Social contract theory on the origin of society and government
• Conventionalism
• Moral right or wrong depends on conventions, on what have been agreed by society
• Since moral issues are often debatable
• And people may not agree on certain moral issues
• Presents a clear, objective, parameter, criterion, for morality--the law
• The basis of moral principles is the law
• What is legal is moral and what is illegal is immoral
• Laws are for the common good; hence, they have to be obeyed
• Laws may be modified to adapt to changing times
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
• German Idealist
• “Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals”
Is Moral Knowledge based on Reason (a
priori) or Observation (a posteriori)?
• Moral knowledge, our knowledge of what is right/wrong is not based
on our observation of how people around us act or behave
• Even if many people lie, cheat, steal, etc., in our minds, we still know
how they should or ought to behave
• Moral knowledge is based on reason
• We know what is right/wrong through reasoning
The Good Will
• Moral right or wrong depends on the will, intention, of the actor, not
the result or outcome of the act
• An act is moral if it is done out of good will
• It is not done out of good will or has little or no moral value if done
with an ulterior motive, out of one’s inclination or out of coercion
Categorical Imperative
• Acting out of good will is acting according to the categorical imperative,
w/c is a moral law made by the individual using his reason
• To determine whether an act is moral or not, before doing it, ask
yourself, “Do you allow everyone to do the act, given the same
situation”?
• Think carefully, sincerely
• If “yes” (no negative consequence for you or for humanity) it is moral
and you should do it
• It is an unconditional command to do it
• If “no” it is not moral so don’t do it
Human Dignity
• Every individual is a legislator of moral laws
• He follows, obeys, his own moral laws
• Man is an end in himself, not a means
• Every man has dignity and should be respected
• We should treat everyone as an end and not as means only; that is,
we should not take advantage of anyone, we should not use someone
as a tool or means to obtain our objectives
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
• German Idealist
• Pessimist
• The World as Will and Idea
The Will to Live
• Humans have this powerful will to live, the desire to remain existing
• People continue to struggle, they persevere, despite difficult living
conditions; humans in general are afraid of death
The Sex Drive
• An aspect of the will
• An irrational force--not from reason
• Not easily controlled by reason
• A person sometimes disobeys his reason when the sex drive is
involved
• Could affect a person’s work
• Some people sacrifice health, wealth, reputation, position, happiness
in trying to satisfy sexual desire
• Some people do foolish things because of this
• We hear of respectable people involved in scandals
• Oftentimes, a person can be attracted to another physically, although
he dislikes her personality or character
• There are perversions , like pedophilia, voyeurism, transvestism,
fetishism, exhibitionism, necrophilia
• There are lewd shows and pornography
• Could destroy relationships as previously faithful spouses become
unfaithful
Pessimism
• Pleasures, happiness, are just fleeting, short-lived
• life is full of misery, disappointments
• Due to desires, which cause troubles to the mind
• Desires are never-ending and tend to spiral
Liberation
1. Escape from suffering through fantasy--by daydreaming
--the poor and hungry can imagine being rich and abundant
--only temporary
2. Art--a person suffering forgets his problems by engaging in art
3. Pity--a person suffering does not feel as bad if he sees others
suffering also
--it lessens one’s suffering to see others in worse situations
--we should be kind to others, since we are all suffering
--no need to aggravate the suffering of others
--love--sympathy
4. Resignation--detachment
--not to give too much importance, value, on anything
--not to have many desires, to have peace of mind
--not to expect too much, or you would get frustrated
--don’t have to compare yourself with others, since
people have different lives
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
• Founder of Utilitarianism
• Word coined by John Stuart Mill
• Philosopher, economist, social reformer, philanthropist
• An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
What is Utilitarianism?
• The philosophy which advocates the pursuit of pleasure and the
avoidance of pain
• Pleasure is good while pain is evil
• God is good and He created man a pleasure-seeking being; so, God
created pleasure for man’s enjoyment
• Pleasure=happiness
• Aim of life--to maximize pleasure and minimize pain
• Act--judged by the result or consequence
Hedonism
• Humans by nature pursue pleasure and avoid pain
• When a person makes decisions, he thinks in terms of pleasure/pain
Egoism
• Humans by nature are selfish, egocentric
• They are primarily concerned with their own pleasure or happiness
• They would even try to satisfy themselves at the expense of others
• They would take advantage of others for their own benefit
• Some people obtain pleasure when they help or satisfy others
• Still, every act is aimed at one’s own satisfaction
Question?
Since people are pleasure-seekers, if they pursue pleasure right and
left, wouldn’t there be harm to individuals and society?
Answer:
• The people’s pursuit of pleasure shall not lead to large-scale harm to
individuals and society, because of the 4 sanctions, which are
checking devices to prevent overindulgence or excessive pursuit of
pleasure
• So, the 4 sanctions prevent harm to individuals and society when
people pursue pleasure
• The 4 sanctions prevent the pursuit of pleasure from getting out of
control
• They limit the pursuit of pleasure within reasonable boundaries
4 Sanctions:
1. Physical sanction--limitations of the body which prevent
overindulgence or excessive indulgence in pleasure
2. Legal sanction--laws prevent actions harmful to society
3. Conventional sanction--fear of what others would think or say about
you; fear of shame or embarrassment
4. Religious sanction--fear of God, divine punishment
Hedonistic Calculus
• A guide to select pleasure and avoid pain
• To maximize pleasure and minimize pain
• 7 criteria:
1. Intensity--given 2 or more pleasures, ceteris paribus, select the pleasure that is more
enjoyable
2. Duration--given 2 or more pleasures, ceteris paribus, select the pleasure that lasts longer
3. Certainty--given 2 or more pleasures, ceteris paribus, select the pleasure that is more
certain; don’t take the risk
4. Propinquity--given 2 or more pleasures, ceteris paribus, select the pleasure that is
attainable sooner, not later
5. Fecundity--given 2 or more pleasures, ceteris paribus, select the pleasure that may lead
to other pleasures
6. Purity--given 2 or more pleasures, ceteris paribus, select the
pleasure that will not cause pain
7. Extent--to share the pleasure or not; share the pleasure if it
increases the pleasure

To minimize pain, select the opposite

Intensity--less
Duration--shorter
“The greatest good to the
greatest number”
An act is better if it benefits more people