ECOSYSTEM

S
First a Brief Review from
Biology…
Ecology
is the study of the
interactions between
various species how
organisms interact
with their nonliving
environment
 Population
A group of individual
organisms of the same
species living w/in a
Individual particular area
Community

A community of
The population of all different species
species living & interacting together
interacting in an area & with the chemical
& physical factors
making up its non-
living environment

Ecosystem
Habitat
 The place where an organism or a population lives

NICHE
 The total way of life or role of a species in an ecosystem

Ecosystems
consist of
nonliving
(abiotic)
abiotic and
living (biotic)
biotic
components
Species/Speciation
 Organisms, the different forms of
life on earth, can be classified into
different species based on certain characteristics.
– Speciation occurs when a new & distinct
species is created via a form of isolation
HHMI Reproductive Isolation and Speciation in Lizards - 2:38
 Biological
Mimicry

Venomous non-venomous
 Abiotic chemicals
Heat
Heat (carbon dioxide, Solar
oxygen, nitrogen, energy
minerals)

Heat

Decomposers Producers
(bacteria, fungi) (plants)

Consumers
(herbivores,
Heat Heat
carnivores)
Producers
 Most producers capture sunlight to produce
carbohydrates by photosynthesis:
Consumers
 Consumers (heterotrophs) get their food by
eating or breaking down all or parts of other
organisms or their remains.
– Herbivores
• Primary consumers that eat producers
– Carnivores
• Eat only other consumers, no vegetation
– Omnivores
• Feed on both plants and animals
Decomposers & Detritivores/Scavengers
 An organism that digests parts of dead organisms,
cast-off fragments, and wastes of living organisms
– EX: bacteria and fungi

Decomposers:
recycle
nutrients in
ecosystems
by secreting
enzymes

Detritivores:
ingest/feed
on wastes or
dead bodies
 First Trophic Second Trophic Third Trophic Fourth Trophic
Level Level Level Level
Producers Primary Secondary Tertiary
(plants) consumers consumers consumers
(herbivores) (carnivores) (top carnivores)

Heat Heat Heat

Solar
energy

Heat Heat

Heat Heat

Detritivores Heat
(decomposers and detritus feeders)
Energy Pyramid
 Shows the decrease in usable energy available
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
 In accordance with the 2nd law of thermodynamics,
there is a decrease in the amount of energy
available to each succeeding organism in a food
chain or web
– Ecological efficiency: percentage of useable energy
transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the next
– The energy is “lost” as heat abiding by the Law of
Conservation of Energy (aka the 1st law of
thermodynamics)
10% Rule
 We assume that 90% of the energy at each energy
level is lost b/c the organism uses the energy (heat).
– This means it is more efficient to eat lower on the energy
pyramid.
– This is why top predators are few in number &
vulnerable to extinction.
The following questions refer to the diagram below of a biomass
pyramid in a grassland ecosystem.
Based on the diagram, which group of
organisms would be considered herbivores?
a) Snakes
b) Mice
c) Grasshoppers
d) Grasses

Based on the laws of thermodynamics, which of the following is the

applied mathematical routine used to estimate the biomass of the
mice in the pyramid?
e) 18,705 kg × 10
f) 18,705kg/10×100
g) 18,705 kg × 0.10 × 0.10
h) 18,705 kg/0.10
Species Interactions
Type of Interaction:

Competition
 Interspecific vs Intraspecific

 Competitive exclusion prevents two species from

occupying the same niche.
– Some species evolve to reduce or
avoid competition for resources
with other species (known as
resource partitioning).
Type of Interaction:

Predation
• Population control
• Predators usually kill the sick, weak or aged
– Gives the rest of the prey greater access to the
available food supply
– Improves the genetic stock
Type of Interaction:

Symbiosis
 Parasitism
– Parasite can live in, on, or just “visit” the host

 Commensalism

 Mutualism
One organism is inhibited or
 Amensalism destroyed while the other
organism remains unaffected
• Can occur as part of competition
• EXAMPLE: A bread mold excretes
penicillin that kills bacteria
 Terrestrial Biomes
large terrestrial regions
characterized by similar climate,
soil, plants, and animals
Biomes
 The most important factors in a biome are
temperature and precipitation
– Also determined by soil type
 Biomes tend to converge
around latitude lines on the
globe
 Elevation also plays a large
key in biome type as well
 n e
o to n e
Ec o to
Ec n e
o to
Ec
Edge Effect
Biomes
 Different climates
lead to different
communities of
organisms, especially
vegetation
 Each biome contains
many ecosystems
whose communities
have adapted to
differences in climate,
soil, and other
environmental factors
Deserts
 The evaporation can be greater than the
precipitation (usually less than 25 cm)
 Covers 30% of the earth
 Found in tropical, temperate, and cold regions
 Deserts
variations in annual
temperature (red)
and
precipitation (blue)
in tropical,
temperate &
polar deserts

 Higher latitude than a tundra (EX: Norway, Greenland)

Grasslands
 Rainfall is erratic & fires are common
 Have shrubs that are good for grazing animals
 Found in tropical, temperate, and cold regions
Grasslands
variations in annual
temperature (red)
and
precipitation (blue)
in tropical,
temperate &
polar grasslands
Grasslands:

Savanna
 Tropical &
subtropical
grassland
 Warm all year
long with
alternating wet
& dry seasons
Grasslands:

Chaparral
 Temperate
shrubland
– Overall mild
climate
 Coastal areas
 Winters are
mild & wet
 Summers are
long, hot, & dry
Grasslands:

Temperate
 Cold winters
 Hot dry
summers
 Deep and
fertile soil
 Ideal for
growing crops
and grazing
cattle
 Grasslands:
 Polar grassland
 Covers ~20% of earth’s land Tundra
 Most of the year, these treeless
plains are bitterly cold with ice & snow
 Have a 6-8 week summer w/ sunlight nearly 24 hrs a
day
Forests
 Have enough precipitation to support stands
of trees
 Found in tropical, temperate, and polar regions
Forests
variations in annual
temperature (red)
and
precipitation (blue)
in tropical,
temperate &
polar forests
Forests:

The Role of Mountains

 High-elevation islands
of biodiversity
 Often have snow-
covered peaks that
reflect solar radiation
and gradually release
water to lower-
elevation streams and
ecosystems
 Forests:

Tropical Rain Forest

 Near the equator

 Has year-around uniformity

warm temperatures, high
humidity & heavy rainfall
 Very rich with species that fill
specific niches
 Forests:

Temperate Rain Forest

Coastal areas
support huge
cone-bearing
evergreen trees
such as
redwoods and
Douglas fir in a
cool moist
environment
 Forests:

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Lose Leaves

 Moderate temperatures
 Long, warm summers
 Cold winters & lots of rain
– Most of the trees survive
winter by dropping their
leaves, which decay and
produce a nutrient-rich soil
 Trees include oaks,
hickory, maple, and beech
 Forests:
Taiga, Boreal/Evergreen Coniferous Forest
 Winters are long,
dry & very cold
 Soil beneath often contains
permafrost or bedrock
 Coniferous trees make up a
large portion of the plant life
– Seeds grow inside cones
– Keep their needles year
around
– Leaves contain little sap
to prevent freezing
– Dark colors help to capture the
sunlight
 Natural Capital Degradation
Desert
Large desert cities
Soil destruction by
off-road vehicles
Soil salinization from
irrigation
Depletion of groundwater
Land disturbance and
pollution from mineral
extraction
Natural Capital Degradation
Grasslands
Conversion to cropland
Release of CO2 to
atmosphere from
grassland burning
Overgrazing by livestock
Oil production and off-
road vehicles in arctic
tundra
Approximately 70% of Brazil’s tropical
savanna (once the size of the Amazon)
has been cleared and converted to the
world’s biggest grain growing area
 Natural Capital Degradation Natural Capital Degradation
Mountains
Forests

Clearing for agriculture, Agriculture

livestock
Timber extraction
grazing, timber, and
urban Mineral extraction
development
Hydroelectric dams and
Conversion of diverse reservoirs
forests to tree
plantations Increasing tourism

Urban air pollution

Damage from off-road
vehicles Increased UV radiation
from ozone depletion
Pollution of forest
streams Soil damage from
off-road vehicles
Freshwater
Biomes
Life in Zones
 Lentic Systems
(standing water)
– Lakes
– Ponds
– Inland wetlands
 Lotic Systems
(flowing systems)
– Streams
– Rivers
Lentic Ecosystems
 Life is found in layers
 Temperature, access to
sunlight for photosynthesis,
dissolved oxygen content,
nutrient availability changes
with depth
Lakes
 Lakes are large natural bodies of standing
freshwater formed from precipitation, runoff, and
groundwater seepage consisting of:
– Littoral zone: near
shore, shallow, with
rooted plants
– Limnetic zone: open,
offshore area, sunlit
– Profundal zone: deep,
open water, too dark for
photosynthesis
– Benthic zone: bottom of
lake, nourished by dead
matter
Thermal Stratification
 In temperate regions, lakes will become stratified
into temperature layers
 During the fall and spring, the lake equalizes in
temperature allowing for an overturn
– Oxygen is brought from the surface to the lake bottom
and nutrients from the bottom are brought to the top

The middle layer that acts as a barrier to the

transfer of nutrients and dissolved oxygen
Lotic Ecosystems
Ecological Services
 Deliver nutrients to the
sea to help sustain
coastal fisheries
 Deposit silt that
maintains deltas
 Purify water
 Renew & renourish Because of different
wetlands environmental conditions in
each zone, a river is a system
 Provide habitats for
of different ecosystems
wildlife
From Mountains to Oceans
Headwater Characteristics
 A narrow zone of cold, clear water that rushes over
waterfalls and rapids
 Large amounts of dissolved oxygen is present
– Leads to the presence of fish such as trout
Downstream Characteristics
 Warmer temperatures
 Slower-moving water
– Leads to the growth of algae
– But due to less agitation and more decomposition, there
is less dissolved oxygen present
Floodplain: Inland Wetlands
Ecological Services
 Absorb and store excess water
from storms (saves us billions
in storm protection)
 Filter and degrade pollutants
(saves us billions in water
treatment)
 Help replenish stream flows
and recharge ground aquifers
 Provide recreation
opportunities
 Provide a variety of wildlife
habitats
Marshes
 An area temporarily flooded
 Often silty land beside a river
or lake
 Grass-like plants

Swamps
 A lowland region permanently
covered with water
 Woody plants
Hardwood Bottomland Forest
 An area down by a river or
stream where lots of
hardwoods, like oaks, grow
 Occasionally flooded

Prairie Potholes
 Depressions that hold water
out on the prairie, especially up
north in Canada
 Very good duck habitat
Peat Moss Bog
 Created from the last stage of
succession in a wet area that fills in
 The peat itself can be dried & burned
 Bogs can be very deep
 Preserved “bog people”
– Placed in bogs
– Peat moss collects salts, creating an
acidic environment destroying bacteria
in body
LOTIC WATER SYSTEM — Describe the
LENTIC WATER SYSTEM—Describe the
PRIARIE POTHOLE or MARSH
Saltwater
Biomes
Oceans Overview
 Saltwater covers about 71% of the
earth’s surface
 The ocean is extremely important
in tropospheric climate regulation
– Distributing solar heat via ocean currents
– Ocean water evaporation
– Storing carbon dioxide
https://www.sciencealert.com/this-mind-boggling-infographic-shows-just-how-much-of-the-ocean-we-don-t-see
James Cameron Dives to the Deepest Part of the Ocean (2:13)
Coastal Zones
 Warm, nutrient rich land, from the high-tide mark to the
shallow edge of the continental shelf
 A small portion of the ocean’s area where the majority of
marine species can be found
Coastal Zone:

Estuaries
a partially enclosed area
of coastal water where
sea water mixes with
freshwater

 When we dam rivers, less goes to the ocean.

This means the brackish water becomes more salty.
Coastal Zone:

Estuaries
 Harsh Conditions
– Salinity naturally fluctuates with tidal cycles, the time of year, &
precipitation
 One of the most fertile ecosystems in the world
– Greater productivity than either the adjacent ocean or the fresh
water upriver
– Nutrients are transported from the land into rivers that flow into
the estuary
– Tidal action circulates nutrients and helps remove o s io n wastes a ny
fi ts: c e e r fo r m
– A high level of light dueBto n e
e shallow ur f
watera creates i t s
ta an extensive s
c e s a b
photosynthetic carpet (seagrassR e du beds:odplants & h have adapted u rc hin
to
 d e fo m s & s ea
complete submersion in salty P r vi
owater) r ga nis en turtle s ,
• Not found in polar waters  i ne o , g re
mar X: manate e s
 E
Ecosystems near Estuaries:

Salt Marshes
 Has a surface inlet and outlet
 Ground here is saturated with water
 Little oxygen, so decay is slow
 Contains many invertebrates
 Breeding ground for many ocean animals
– EX: crabs and shellfish
Ecosystems near Estuaries:

Mangrove Forests
 Found along warm, tropical
coasts where there is too much
silt for coral reefs to grow
 Dominated by salt-tolerant trees
called mangroves
 Help to protect the coastline
from erosion
 Provide a breeding nursery for
lots of fish and invertebrates
Coastal Zone:

Intertidal Zone
 Rocky shore
– High wave action
– Animals have a way of
sealing in moisture (EX: shell)
and cling to the rocks so they
don’t get washed away
 Sandy beach
– Shifting environment that
could engulf them
– Most bury into the sand and
move with the tides, so they
don’t dry out
Oceanic Zones
 Divided into neritic (open ocean from the shoreline to a
depth of 200m) and oceanic provinces (depths > 200m)
– Euphotic
• Lots of light
• From 0 - 200 meters
• Photosynthesis takes place here
– Bathyal
• The dimly lit part of ocean
• From 200 - 1500 meters
– Abyssal
gic
Pe
la

• Extends from shore to 6000m down

Be n
• Marine snow

thic
• Completely dark, cold, & little DO
• Many organisms burrow
Bacteria can go >500m below the ocean floor
Marine Life:

Kelp
 Largest of the brown algae
 Reaches lengths of 60m (200ft)
 Common in cooler water & along rocky coasts
 Importance:
– Provide habitat for many animals like tubeworms, sponges,
clams, fish, & mammals
– Several invertebrates eat kelp
Marine Life:

Coral Reefs
 Characteristics:
– Built from layers of calcium carbonate
• Grow slowly; as one dies, another grows on it
– Found in warm, shallow seawater
• Waters are often poor in nutrients yet favorable in other factors
– Most diverse of all marine ecosystems
– Zooxanthellae (symbiotic algae) live and photosynthesize in
coral tissues
• Zooxanthellae receive a home and CO2
• Coral receive nourishment from the
photosynthetic algae
• Corals are animals and can also capture
food at night with stinging tentacles
Chasing Coral, Mutualistic Relationship (2:09)
Risks to:

Coral Reefs
 According to WWF, approximately ¼th of coral reefs
worldwide are already considered damaged beyond repair,
and another ⅔rds are under serious threat
 Silt washing from downstream has smothered the reefs
 High salinity from freshwater diversion Homemade Bomb
 Fishing with dynamite or cyanide
 Over-fishing
 Boat groundings
 Hurricane damage
 Tourism
 Mining of coral for building materials
Importance of:

Coral Reefs
 Habitat
 Coastline protection
 Provides humans with seafood,
pharmaceuticals, and recreational/tourism
Protection of:

Coral Reefs
 Publicity for the destruction and bleaching
of coral reefs is growing and many nations
are moving to protect this valuable resource
 If allowed to, coral reefs can often recover from damage
Bathyal

Abyssal
measured in units of energy per unit area per unit time
Biogeochemical Cycles
 Water Cycle (3:18)

Water (Hydrologic)
If an area was originally forested and then
underwent urban development, which of the
following shows the most likely effects on
various parts of the water cycle in the area?
  NOT an atmospheric cycle
Phosphorus  Phosphorus is usually
found in rock formations
and ocean sediments
 A very slow cycle
How Humans Alter the Phosphorus Cycle
 Removing large amounts of phosphate
from the earth to make fertilizer
 Adding excess phosphates to aquatic systems from
runoff of animal wastes and fertilizers
– Can lead to eutrophication
– This is a big deal because phosphorus is often insoluble
in water making it is unavailable to be used by plants
and thus unavailable to the food chain
 Reducing phosphorous in tropical soils by clearing
forests
Too Much of a Good Thing

r in u s ( a p r otist
a
Perkinsus m e r s w h e n D O is
o g e n ) in f e cts oyst
path low.

 Plant nutrients from a lake’s environment affect the types and

numbers of organisms it can support
– Oligotrophic (poorly nourished) lake—usually a newly formed lake with
small supply of plant nutrient input
– Eutrophic (well nourished) lake—Over time, sediment, organic material,
and inorganic nutrients wash into lakes causing excessive plant growth
• Cultural eutrophication—Human inputs of nutrients accelerate the
eutrophication process
Hypoxic = low oxygen
• Brevetoxins can be produced
Anoxic = no oxygen
Let’s Sketch: Eutrophication
+ = Algal
bloom
fertilizer from
runoff enters prevents light
lentic systems penetration & leads to
murky water

Algae

algae die

sink to the bottom of the

DO
hypoxic or anoxic
lake to be decomposed by conditions are
bacteria created
Phosphorus Cycle (1:05)
Nitrogen

http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Soil-Farming-and-Science/Sci-Media/Interactive/The-terrestrial-nitrogen-cycle
How Humans Alter the Nitrogen Cycle
 Adding gases (nitrogen oxides) into the
atmosphere that contribute to acid rain
– Producing fertilizers
– Burning fossil fuels in automobiles
and power plants
 Contaminating groundwater with mobile nitrate
ions (inorganic fertilizers and deforestation
allow for this)
 Deforestation
– More ammonification will occur
Nitrogen Fixation
 Specialized bacteria convert gaseous N2 into NH3
– Done by cyanobacteria or bacteria living in the nodules
on the root of various plants

Nitrification
 Ammonia is converted to nitrite, then to nitrate

Nitrification
 Plant roots absorb ammonium ions and nitrate ions
for use in making molecules such as DNA, amino
acids and proteins
Ammonification
 After nitrogen has served its purpose in living
organisms, decomposing bacteria convert the
nitrogen-rich compounds, wastes, and dead bodies
into simpler compounds such as ammonia

Denitrification
 Convert ammonia  nitrite ions and nitrate ions 
nitrous oxide gas and nitrogen gas
– Occurs when a soil nutrient is reduced and released into
the atmosphere as a gas
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/the-nitrogen-cycle-acid-rain-and-fossil-fuels.html#lesson
 Rhizobium

Legume: the fruit or seed

of the pea family
The Nitrogen Cycle—Simplified

PROCESS PRODUCT
Fix N Fixation
2 Ammonia (Ammonium)

Nitrification Nitrites / Nitrates

Assimiliation P roteins (DNA/Amino Acids)

Ammonification Ammonia (Ammonium)

Denitrification Nitrogen Gas

Nitrogen Cycle (3:29)
Sulfur
How Humans Alter the Sulfur Cycle
 We add sulfur dioxide to
the atmosphere by: pH scale
– Refining sulfur containing
petroleum
– Burning coal and oil
– Converting sulfur-containing
metallic ores into free
metals such as copper, lead, Normal
and zinc thus, releasing rainfall
sulfur dioxide into the pH = 5.6
environment
Combat acid
rain with basic
compounds.
Sulfur Cycle (2:59)