Fuel Cell

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology (RUET)
What is Fuel Cell?

Fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical energy is directly converted
into electrical energy.
Every fuel cell has two electrodes called, respectively, the anode and cathode. The reactions that
produce electricity take place at the electrodes.
In a fuel cell, the hydrogen combustion reaction

is spilt into two electro-chemical half reactions:
Why Study Fuel Cells?

 Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, including transportation, material
handling, stationary, portable, and emergency backup power applications.
 Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional combustion-based technologies currently used
in many power plants and passenger vehicles.
 Fuel cells can operate at higher efficiencies than combustion engines, and can convert the
chemical energy in the fuel to electrical energy with efficiencies of up to 60%.
 Fuel cells have lower emissions than combustion engines. Hydrogen fuel cells emit only water,
so there are no carbon dioxide emissions and no air pollutants that create smog and cause health
problems at the point of operation.
 Also, fuel cells are quiet during operation as they have fewer moving parts.
How Fuel Cells Work?

Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They produce
electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes—a negative
electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—sandwiched around an electrolyte.
Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need
recharging. They produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is
supplied.
A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and air is fed to
the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at the anode
separates hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons, which
take different paths to the cathode.
The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of
electricity. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the
cathode, where they unite with oxygen and the electrons to
produce water and heat.
So why can’t we go out and buy a fuel cell?

The basic workings of a fuel cell may not be difficult to illustrate. But building inexpensive,
efficient, reliable fuel cells is a far more complicated business .
Scientists and inventors have designed many different types and sizes of fuel cells in the search for
greater efficiency, and the technical details of each kind vary. Many of the choices facing fuel cell
developers are constrained by the choice of electrolyte. The design of electrodes, for example, and
the materials used to make them depend on the electrolyte. Today, the main electrolyte types are
alkali, molten carbonate, phosphoric acid, proton exchange membrane (PEM) and solid oxide. The
first three are liquid electrolytes; the last two are solids.
The type of fuel also depends on the electrolyte. Some cells need pure hydrogen, and therefore
demand extra equipment such as a "reformer" to purify the fuel. Other cells can tolerate some
impurities, but might need higher temperatures to run efficiently. Liquid electrolytes circulate in
some cells, which requires pumps. The type of electrolyte also dictates a cell's operating
temperature–"molten" carbonate cells run hot, just as the name implies.
Understanding Fuel Cell

To understand how a fuel cell compares with a combustion engine or a battery, several
quantitative metrics/figures such as power density and energy density are required.
For portable fuel cells or other mobile energy conversion devices, power density and energy
density is much more important than power and energy. This gives the information about how
big a system needs to be to deliver a certain amount of power or energy.
Power density is the amount of power that can be produced by a device per unit mass
(gravimetric power density) or volume (volumetric power density).
Energy density is the total energy capacity available to the system per unit (gravimetric energy
density) or volume (volumetric energy density).
Understanding Fuel Cell

Fuel cell produces electricity directly from chemical energy, thus efficient (~60%), no moving
parts, and literally produces no harmful gases.
Fuel cell is easily scalable between power (fuel cell size) and capacity (fuel reservoir size)
compared to battery. It offers potentially higher energy densities than batteries and quickly
rechargeable.
Alkali fuel cells operate on compressed

hydrogen and oxygen. They generally use a
solution of potassium hydroxide (chemically,
KOH) in water as their electrolyte. Efficiency is
about 70 percent, and operating temperature is
150 to 200℃. Cell output ranges from 300 watts
(W) to 5 kilowatts (kW).
Alkali cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to

provide both electricity and drinking water.
They require pure hydrogen fuel, however, and

their platinum electrode catalysts are expensive.
And like any container filled with liquid, they can
leak.
Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use high-

temperature compounds of salt (like sodium or
magnesium) carbonates (chemically, CO3) as the
electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 percent,
and operating temperature is about 650 degrees C.
Units with output up to 2 megawatts (MW) have been
constructed, and designs exist for units up to 100 MW.
The high temperature limits damage from carbon
monoxide "poisoning" of the cell and waste heat can be
recycled to make additional electricity. Their nickel
electrode-catalysts are inexpensive compared to the
platinum used in other cells. But the high temperature
also limits the materials and safe uses of MCFCs–they
would probably be too hot for home use. Also, carbonate
ions from the electrolyte are used up in the reactions,
making it necessary to inject carbon dioxide to
compensate.
Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric

acid as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from
40 to 80 percent, and operating temperature is
between 150 to 200 ℃. Existing phosphoric acid
cells have outputs up to 200 kW, and 11 MW units
have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon
monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent,
which broadens the choice of fuels they can use.
If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed.
Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and
internal parts must be able to withstand the
corrosive acid.
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells work

with a polymer electrolyte in the form of a thin,
permeable sheet. Efficiency is about 40 to 60
percent, and operating temperature is about 80-100
degrees C. Cell outputs generally range from 5 to 250
kW. The solid, flexible electrolyte will not leak or
crack, and these cells operate at a low enough
temperature to make them suitable for homes and
cars. But their fuels must be purified, and a platinum
catalyst is used on both sides of the membrane,
raising costs.
Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic

compound of metal (like calcium or zirconium)
oxides (chemically, O2) as electrolyte. Efficiency
is about 60 percent, and operating temperatures
are about 1,000 degrees C. Cells output is up to
100 kW. At such high temperatures a reformer is
not required to extract hydrogen from the fuel,
and waste heat can be recycled to make
additional electricity. However, the high
temperature limits applications of SOFC units
and they tend to be rather large. While solid
electrolytes cannot leak, they can crack.
Fuel cell type PEMFC PAFC MCFC SOFC AFC
Typical electrical 60% direct H2 40% 50% 60% 60%
efficiency 40% reformed fuel
Operating temp <120 ºC 150-200 ºC 600-700 ºC 500-1000 ºC <100 ºC
Typical stack size <1-100kW 5-400kW 300kW-3MW 1kW-2MW 1-100kW
Waste heat grade low medium high high low medium
Waste heat use Hot water, absorption Hot water, process heat, Process heat, steam Process heat, steam Hot water, absorption
cooling steam absorption absorption cooling absorption cooling cooling
cooling
Applications  Backup power  Distributed  Distributed  Distributed  Backup power
 Portable power generation generation generation  Transportation
 Distributed  Electric utility  Electric utility  Military
generation  Auxiliary power  Space
 Transportation
Advantages  Low temperature  Increased tolerance  High efficiency  High efficiency  Low temperature
 Modular design of fuel impurities  Fuel flexibility  Fuel flexibility  Modular design
 Quick start-up  Suitable for CHP  Suitable for CHP  Solid electrolyte  Quick start-up
 Hybrid/gas turbine  Suitable for CHP
cycle  Hybrid/gas
turbine cycle
Challenges  Expensive catalysts  Expensive catalysts  High temperature  High temperature  Sensitive to CO2 in
 Sensitive to fuel  Long start-up time corrosion and corrosion and fuel and air
impurities  Sulphur sensitivity breakdown of cell breakdown of cell  Electrolyte
components components management
 Long start-up time  Long start-up
 Low power density time
 Limited number
of shutdown
Fuel Cell Efficiency

Basic energy conversion of a fuel cell was described as:
Chemical energy of fuel = Electrical energy + Heat energy
Hydrogen (Energy) Electricity (Energy= VIt)
FUEL CELL Heat (by product)

Oxygen (Energy) Water (by product)
The input energy is that produced during reactions at the electrodes.
13
Fuel Cell Efficiency
The fuel cell thermodynamic efficiency is given by the ratio of the Gibbs function change to the Enthalpy
change in the overall cell reaction. The Gibbs function change measures the electrical work and the
enthalpy change is a measure of the heating value of the fuel.
Efficiency = (dG/dH)
For the hydrogen -oxygen reaction: dH = - 68,317 cal/g mole of H 2, and dG = - 56,690 cal/g mole of H2 .
The efficiency of the Ideal Fuel Cell is therefore:
Efficiency = (56,690/68,317) = 83%
Another measure of the fuel cell efficiency is known as the "Voltage Efficiency" and is the ratio of the
actual voltage under operating conditions to the theoretical cell voltage.
Voltage Efficiency = (Actual Voltage)/(Theoretical Voltage) = (V A / 1.23)
14
POLARIZATION CURVE
15
POLARIZATION CURVE
Activation Losses: These losses are caused by the slowness of the reaction taking place on the
surface of the electrodes. A proportion of the voltage generated is lost in driving the chemical
reaction that transfers the electrons.
Ohmic Losses: The voltage drop due to the resistance to the flow of electrons through the material
of the electrodes. This loss varies linearly with current density.
Concentration Losses: Losses that result from the change in concentration of the reactants at the
surface of the electrodes as the fuel is used.
16
Thermoelectric power generation
Consider two wires made from different metals joined at both ends (junctions), forming a closed circuit.
Ordinarily, nothing will happen.
However, when one of the ends is heated, something interesting happens: A current flows continuously
in the circuit, as shown in Fig. This is called the Seebeck effect, in honor of Thomas Seebeck, who
made this discovery in 1821.
The circuit that incorporates both thermal and electrical effects is called a thermoelectric circuit, and a
device that operates on this circuit is called a thermoelectric device.
17
The Seebeck effect has two major applications: temperature measurement and power generation.
When the thermoelectric circuit is broken, as shown in Fig., the current ceases to flow, and we can
measure the driving force (the electromotive force) or the voltage generated in the circuit by a
voltmeter.
The voltage generated is a function of the temperature difference and the materials of the two wires
used. Therefore, temperature can be measured by simply measuring voltages.
The two wires used to measure the

temperature in this manner form a
thermocouple, which is the most versatile and
most widely used temperature measurement
device. A common T-type thermocouple, for
example, consists of copper and constantan
wires, and it produces about 40 mV per °C
difference.
18
Peltier Effect: Whenever current passes through the circuit of two dissimilar conductors,
depending on the current direction, either heat is absorbed or released at the junction of the
two conductors. This is called Peltier Effect.
When a current is made to flow through a junction

between two conductors, A and B, heat may be generated
or removed at the junction. The Peltier heat generated at
the junction per unit time is
where and are the Peltier coefficients of conductors A and
B, and is the electric current (from A to B).
19
The Seebeck effect also forms the basis for thermoelectric power generation. The schematic diagram
of a thermoelectric generator is shown in Fig. Heat is transferred from a high-temperature source to
the hot junction in the amount of QH, and it is rejected to a low-temperature sink from the cold
junction in the amount of QL. The difference between these two quantities is the net electrical work
produced, that is, We= QH−QL. It is evident from Fig. that the thermoelectric power cycle closely
resembles an ordinary heat engine cycle, with electrons serving as the working fluid.
Therefore, the thermal efficiency of a thermoelectric
generator operating between the temperature limits of TH
and TL is limited by the efficiency of a Carnot cycle
operating between the same temperature limits. Thus, in
the absence of any irreversibilities (such as I2R heating,
where R is the total electrical resistance of the wires),
the thermoelectric generator will have the Carnot
efficiency.
20
Properties of Thermoelectric Materials
21
22
The major drawback of thermoelectric generators is their low
efficiency.
The future success of these devices depends on finding materials
with more desirable characteristics. For example, the voltage output
of thermoelectric devices has been increased several times by
switching from metal pairs to semiconductors. A practical
thermoelectric generator using n-type (heavily doped to create
excess electrons) and p-type (heavily doped to create a deficiency of
electrons) materials connected in series is shown in Fig. Despite
their low efficiencies, thermoelectric generators have definite
weight and reliability advantages and are presently used in rural
areas and in space applications. For example, silicon–germanium-
based thermoelectric generators have been powering Voyager
spacecraft since 1980 and are expected to continue generating
power for many more years
23
24
25
26
Jean Charles Athanase Peltier, who discovered the phenomenon during his experiments that when
a small current was passed through the junction of two dissimilar wires, the junction was cooled.
This is called the Peltier effect, and it forms the basis for thermoelectric refrigeration. A practical
thermoelectric refrigeration circuit using semiconductor materials is shown in Fig. 11–28. Heat is
absorbed from the refrigerated space in the amount of Q L and rejected to the warmer environment
in the amount of QH.
The difference between these two quantities is the net electrical work that needs to be supplied;
that is, We=QH-QL. Thermoelectric refrigerators presently cannot compete with vapor-
compression refrigeration systems because of their low coefficient of performance. They are
available in the market, however, and are preferred in some applications because of their small
size, simplicity, quietness, and reliability.
27
1. A thermoelectric refrigerator that resembles a small ice chest is powered by a car battery and
has a COP of 0.1. If the refrigerator cools a 0.350-L canned drink from 20 to 4°C in 30 min,
determine the average electric power consumed by the thermoelectric refrigerator.
2. A thermoelectric generator receives heat from a source at 340°F and rejects the waste heat to
the environment at 90°F. What is the maximum thermal efficiency this thermoelectric
generator can have?
3. A thermoelectric refrigerator removes heat from a refrigerated space at -5°C at a rate of 130 W
and rejects it to an environment at 20°C. Determine the maximum coefficient of performance
this thermoelectric refrigerator can have and the minimum required power input.
28
Operation of Thermoelectric power generation
29
Performance of Thermoelectric power generation
The performance of thermoelectric materials can be expressed as
whereby Z is the thermoelectric material figure-of-merit, is the Seebeck coefficient

given by
R is the electric resistivity (inverse of electric conductivity) and k is the total thermal
conductivity.
This figure-of-merit may be made dimensionless by multiplying by (average
absolute temperature of hot and cold plates of the thermoelectric module, K), i.e.,
and
The term is referred to as the electrical power factor. In general, a thermoelectric
power generator exhibits low efficiency due to the relatively small dimensionless
figure-of-merit () of currently available thermoelectric materials.
30
Performance of Thermoelectric power generation
The conversion efficiency of a thermoelectric power generator defined as the ratio of
power delivered to the heat input at the hot junction of the thermoelectric device, is given
by
Limited by the second-law of thermodynamics, the ideal (absolute maximum) efficiency

of a thermoelectric power generator operating as a reversible heat engine is Carnot
efficiency, given by
The maximum conversion efficiency of an irreversible thermoelectric power generator can

be estimated using
31
Common Heat Sources for Thermoelectric Generators:
(i) Radioactive Decay
• Plutonium-238
(ii) Waste Heat
• Automotive exhaust; Steel Foundries; Wood Stoves; Gas Flares; Candles; Hot Water
Pipes; Solar Photovoltaic Panels; Electronics
(iii) Body Heat
(iv) Renewable Sources
• Geothermal; Solar Thermal
(v) Combustion
• Any Fuel Source; Internal or External Combustion
32
What are the Advantages of Thermoelectric Generators?
1.Reliability - Thermoelectric generators are solid-state devices. Having no moving parts to break or wear out
makes them very reliable. Thermoelectric generators can last a very long time. The Voyager 1 spacecraft
thermoelectric generator, as of this writing has been operational for 41 years. It has travelled over 13 billion
miles without any maintenance or repairs.
2.Quiet - Thermoelectric generators can be designed to be completely silent.
3.No Greenhouse Gases - Thermoelectric generators do not require any greenhouse gases to operate. Some
energy conversion technologies do.
4.Wide Range of Fuel Sources - Thermoelectric generators do not have restrictions on fuels that can be used
to generate the needed heat. Many other energy conversion technologies do.
5.Scalability - Thermoelectric generators can be designed to output power levels smaller than microwatts and
larger than kilowatts.
6.Mountable in Any Orientation - Thermoelectric generators operate in any orientation. Some energy
conversion technologies are sensitive to their orientation relative to gravity.
7.Direct Energy Conversion - Thermoelectric generators convert heat directly into electricity. This makes
thermoelectric generators less mechanically complex than some other energy conversion technologies.
8.Compact Size - Thermoelectric generators can be designed to be very compact. This leads to greater design
flexibility.
33
Thermionic energy conversion (TEC) is the direct conversion of heat into electricity
by the mechanism of thermionic emission, the spontaneous ejection of hot electrons
from a surface.
34
A thermionic power converter has two electrodes. One of these is raised to a sufficiently high
temperature to become a thermionic electron emitter, or “hot plate.” The other electrode, called a
collector because it receives the emitted electrons, is operated at a significantly lower temperature.
The space between the electrodes is sometimes a vacuum but is normally filled with a vapour or gas
at low pressure. The thermal energy may be supplied by chemical, solar, or nuclear sources.
Thermionic converters are solid-state devices with no moving parts. They can be designed for high
reliability and long service life. Thus, thermionic converters have been used in many spacecraft.
The rate at which electron current in amperes per square metre is emitted from the surface of the
emitter is given by the Richardson–Dushman equation; i.e.,
where T is the absolute temperature in kelvins of the emitter, e is the electronic charge in coulombs,
and k is Boltzmann’s gas constant in joules per kelvin. The parameter R is also characteristic of the
emitter material.
35
• Thermionic power generator (TPG) is a device that converts heat energy into electrical
energy.
• Thermionic emission is the basis for the working of this system.
• The thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from metal surface due to heat.
In 1873, the British professor Frederic Guthrie invented the Thermionic phenomenon.
In 1883, Thomas A. Edison observed that the electrons are emitted from a metal surface when it was
heated. This effect is called Edison effect.
Later in 1904, a British physicist John Ambrose Fleming developed two-element vacuum tube
known as diode.
After Fleming, Owen Willans Richardson worked with thermionic emission and received a Nobel
Prize in 1928 "for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the
law named after him.
36
• A thermionic energy converter (or) thermionic power generator is a device

consisting of two electrodes placed near one another in a vacuum.
• One electrode is normally called the cathode, or emitter, and the other is called the anode, or
plate.
• Ordinarily, electrons in the cathode are prevented from escaping from the surface by a
potential-energy barrier.
• When an electron starts to move away from the surface, it induces a corresponding
positive charge in the material, which tends to pull it back into the surface.
• To escape, the electron must somehow acquire enough energy to overcome this energy
barrier.
37
•At ordinary temperatures, almost none of the electrons can

acquire enough energy to escape.
• However, when the cathode is very hot, the electron
energies are greatly increased by thermal motion.
• At sufficiently high temperatures, a considerable number
of electrons are able to escape.
• The liberation of electrons from a hot surface is
called thermionic emission.
38
Thermionic effect is the ejection of electron from the heated metal surface and
forms as electron cloud at the cathode.
The number of electron emitted from the metal surface depends on temperature and
work function.
Work function(φ)
For Electrons to leave the surface of the metal, they have to be supplied with enough
Energy.
• We call the minimum energy required to allow an electron to be liberated from a material
as its work function(φ)
• Work Function differs from material to material– usually a few eV
39
Richardson law states that the emission current density is exponentially depend on work
function and inversely depends upon the absolute temperature.
According to Richardson, the emission current density ‘J’ can be expressed as ,

J = AT2 e (-/KT) A/m2
Where A-Emission constant (A/m3/K2)

 - Work function
T – absolute temperature (K)
K – Boltzman constant (J/K)
J - emission current density.
40
Principle
Emitter Quartz tube Collector
Thermionic power generator is based on the

principles of Thermionic effect that the electrons
are emitted from a hot metal surface and
responsible for the production of electricity.
Thermal energy
Construction VL
• The TPG consist of tungsten metal, which is
RL
negatively charged cathode acts as an emitter.
• There is positively charged electrode is called

Electrical energy
collector. It is collecting the ejected electrons.
The emitter and collector are kept in a vacuum
quartz tube.
41
Advantages Applications
• Higher efficiency and high power density • They are used in space power application for
• Compact to use spacecraft
Disadvantages • They are used to power submarines and boats.

• They used in water pump for irrigation,
• There is a possibility of vaporization of emitter
surface • They used in power plant for industry and
• Thermal breaking is possible during operation
• domestic purpose
The sealing is often gets failure
42
Fig. (A) Schematic of the thermionic energy conversion (TEC) process. (B) Electromotive diagram
showing electron energy levels during TEC. 43
Fundamental Physics of TEC
The basic concept of TEC is outlined in Figure 1A. As heat is added to the emitter (cathode) and the
emitter temperature rises, electrons have sufficient energy to escape the solid and move freely in the
vacuum, a process likened to evaporation or boiling off of electrons. These electrons then move across
an electrode gap to a collector (anode), and completing the circuit with a load produces electrical
power.
Figure 1B shows this process of thermionic emission from the perspective of the energy levels of the
electrons. To be emitted, electrons in the emitter must be energized to be above the vacuum potential
barrier of the emitter, where the difference between the vacuum potential and the Fermi energy is called
the work function (ϕ). If no collisional or space-charge effects limit the electron transport through the
interelectrode gap, the electrons traverse the gap and enter the collector, where the ideal output voltage
(Vout) is approximately the contact potential difference.
44
According to Richardson, the emission current density ‘J’ can be expressed as,
J = AT2 e (-/KT) A/m2
Where A-Emission constant = 120 x 104

 - Work function=eV (volt)
T – absolute temperature (K)
K – Boltzman constant (J/K)
Jc= ATc2 e (-eVc/KTc)
Ja= ATa2 e (-eVa/KTa)
Net current density flow, J=Jc-Ja

Voltage output, V= c- a- p
c is the cathode work function

a is the anode work function 45
Power produced=JV
Heat supplied to the cathode (cathode heat flux), H =+
is the emissivity for the electrode materials
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.668 x 10-12 J/s cm2 K4)
Efficiency of the thermo-ionic generator, η=
Carnot efficiency,
46
A thermo-ionic generator works on the following data:

Cathode work function: 2.6V
Anode work function: 2.0V
Temperature of cathode: 2000K
Temperature of surroundings: 1000K
Plasma potential drop: 0.1V
Emissivity for electrode materials: 0.2.
Calculate the efficiency of the generator and compare with Carnot efficiency.
Charge of electron, e: 1.6 x 10 -19C
Boltzmann constant: 1.38 x 10 -23 J/K
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.668 x 10-12 J/s cm2 K4
47
Principle, construction and working of Magneto hydrodynamic generator (MHD):
Principle
• The principle of Magnetohydrodynamic generator is based on Lorenz law and faraday's
law.
• In this system, the hot ionized gaseous conductor (working fluid) is passed into the high
magnetic field and thereby the current is produced. By placing suitable electrodes (Anode and
cathode) inside the chamber, the output load is taken through the external circuit.
48
49
The Lorentz force law is the basis for the Magnetohydrodynamic generator
The Lorentz force law states that the charged particle experience a force when is
moving in the electromagnetic field. This force can be explained as
F= Q (v x B)
Where, F is the force acting on charged particle.

Q is the charge of the particle
V is the velocity of particle
B is the magnetic induction
50
When a charged particle moving in a magnetic field, it experience the retarding

force as well as produce voltage. This is the basis of Faraday’s law.
S
Hot gaseous
conductor V Output voltage
51
52
Thermal resistance sealing

Water cooler
Magnet
S
combustion
Working Electrode
fluid Load
Ionized Gas V output
Chamber
Inlet
N
Stream
out
Nozzle
53
• MHD generator consist of a Combustion chamber and generator

chamber.
• The fluid conductor is passed into the combustion chamber where they
are ionized at very high temperature.
• There is a nozzle through which the ionized gas pass into the generator
chamber.
• The generator chamber consist of powerful magnet and a number of
oppositely located electrode pair is inserted in the channel to conduct the
electrical current generated to an external load.
• Both combustion chamber and generator chamber are surrounded by a
heat resistance material and water cooler
54
• The gaseous (fluid) conductor is passed into the combustion chamber through
inlet.
• By using a fuel like oil (or) natural gas (or) coal, the fluid conductor is heated
to a plasma state and hence it is ionized.
• The temperature in the combustion chamber is around 2000°K to 2400°K.
• The heat generated in the combustion chamber removes the outermost electrons
in the fluid conductor.
• Therefore, the gas particle acquires the charge
55
• The charged gas particles with high velocity enters into the generator chamber via
nozzle.
• The positive and negative charge moves to corresponding electrodes (anode and
Cathode) and constitute the current.
• In generator chamber, based principles of Faraday’s law, the high velocity ionized
conducting gas particles experience the magnetic filed at right angles to their motion of
direction and hence the potential (current) is produced.
• The direction of current (Potential) is perpendicular to both the direction of moving

gas particle and to the magnetic field.
56
• The electrodes are connected to an external circuit to get a load output.

• The current produced in the MHD generator are direct current (DC)
• This DC current can be converted into alternative current (AC) using an
inverter attached with the external circuit.
• In MHD generator, the seeding materials such as potassium and cesium are
used to reduce the ionization temperature.
• These seeds are mixed with fuel material such as natural gas and coal.
• The overall efficiency of MHD generators are about 50 to 60 %.
• The electrode are made generally using high temperature ceramic materials
such as carbides (SiC, ZrC, MbC), bromides (ZrB2, TiB2, LaB2) and silicides
(WS and MOSi2 ).
57
Advantages
Disadvantages
• The on and off time is about second. • They need high pure superconductor.
• There are no moving parts, it is very reliable to • Working temperature is very high as about
use. 2000°K to 2400°K.
• The MHD generator has high thermal efficiency • The loss of power if very high
• It is a direct conversion device. • The components get high corrosion due to
• They have a better fuel utilization high working temperature.
• It can produce large amount of power
• The size of the pant is small
Application
• The MHD generators are used to power submarines and aircrafts.
• Electrical power production for domestic applications
• They are used in a pulsed detonation rocket engine (PDRE) for space application
• They can be used as power plants in industry and uninterrupted power supply system
58
59
60
61
Difference between open and closed cycle MHD
62
63

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Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology (RUET)

What is Fuel Cell?

In a fuel cell, the hydrogen combustion reaction

Why Study Fuel Cells?

How Fuel Cells Work?

So why can’t we go out and buy a fuel cell?

Understanding Fuel Cell

Understanding Fuel Cell

Alkali fuel cells operate on compressed

Alkali cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to

They require pure hydrogen fuel, however, and

Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use high-

Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells work

Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic

Fuel Cell Efficiency

Hydrogen (Energy) Electricity (Energy= VIt)

FUEL CELL Heat (by product)

The input energy is that produced during reactions at the electrodes.

Fuel Cell Efficiency

Efficiency = (56,690/68,317) = 83%

Voltage Efficiency = (Actual Voltage)/(Theoretical Voltage) = (V A / 1.23)

The two wires used to measure the

When a current is made to flow through a junction

whereby Z is the thermoelectric material figure-of-merit, is the Seebeck coefficient

Limited by the second-law of thermodynamics, the ideal (absolute maximum) efficiency

The maximum conversion efficiency of an irreversible thermoelectric power generator can

• A thermionic energy converter (or) thermionic power generator is a device

•At ordinary temperatures, almost none of the electrons can

• Work Function differs from material to material– usually a few eV

According to Richardson, the emission current density ‘J’ can be expressed as ,

Where A-Emission constant (A/m3/K2)

Thermionic power generator is based on the

• There is positively charged electrode is called

Disadvantages • They are used to power submarines and boats.

Where A-Emission constant = 120 x 104

Jc= ATc2 e (-eVc/KTc)

Ja= ATa2 e (-eVa/KTa)

Net current density flow, J=Jc-Ja

c is the cathode work function

Efficiency of the thermo-ionic generator, η=

A thermo-ionic generator works on the following data:

Principle, construction and working of Magneto hydrodynamic generator (MHD):

Where, F is the force acting on charged particle.

When a charged particle moving in a magnetic field, it experience the retarding

Thermal resistance sealing

• MHD generator consist of a Combustion chamber and generator

• The temperature in the combustion chamber is around 2000°K to 2400°K.

• Therefore, the gas particle acquires the charge

• The direction of current (Potential) is perpendicular to both the direction of moving

• The electrodes are connected to an external circuit to get a load output.

Difference between open and closed cycle MHD

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