INFORMATICS AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Leeshma K.

Assistant Professor

Dept. of Computer Application

JDT Islam College of Arts and Science

COMPUTERS AND OPERATING SYSTEM

Module 1
 SYLLABUS
• Computer
• Evolution of computers
• Basic idea about parts of a computer , input devices , output devices
• Memory storage devices and operating systems
• Evolution of internet
• Scientific data base
• useful educational websites
 Computer

• A computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores or

processes the input as per user instructions and provides output in
desired format
The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −
• Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition,
subtraction, differentials, square root, etc.
• Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like
greater than, less than, equal to, opposite, etc.
Von Neumann architecture
The basic parts of a computer are as follows −

1. Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and instructions to the
computer are called input unit.
2. Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to provide information to the
user in desired format are called output unit.
3. Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit controls all the functions of the computer. All devices
or parts of computer interact through the control unit.
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the computer where all arithmetic operations and logical
operations take place.
5. Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes are stored in the memory.
Memory is of two types – primary memory and secondary memory. Primary memory resides within
the CPU whereas secondary memory is external to it.
 Computer History
ABACUS
4th Century B.C.

The abacus, a simple counting aid, may have been

invented in Babylonia (now Iraq) in the fourth century B.C.

This device allows users to make computations using a

system of sliding beads arranged on a rack.

Considered the first computer

First Computer

ABACUS
 Napier’s Bones
• In 1617, the last year of his life, Napier invented
a tool called “Napier's Bones” which reduces the
effort it takes to multiply numbers.
• Napier’s bones were called that because they
were often made of bone, ivory, silver, or wood.
The were universally popular and common until
the late 1800s. Sometimes the Napier tables were
engraved on rods in a case so that numbers could
be “dialed in”.
BLAISE PASCAL
(1623 - 1662)

 In 1642, the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise

Pascal invented a calculating device that would come to be
called the "Adding Machine".

One of the first and earliest mechanical devices used for

calculating was the Pascaline

Only performed addition, not multiplication or division

Blaise Pascal
CHARLES BABBAGE
(1791 - 1871)

 Born in 1791, Charles Babbage was an English mathematician

and professor.
 In 1822, he persuaded the British government to finance his
design to build a machine that would calculate tables for logarithms.
Called the “Difference Engine.”
Device was to calculate numbers to 20 th
place and print them at
4 digits per minute.
With Charles Babbage's creation of the "Analytical Engine",
(1833) computers took the form of a general purpose machine.
 Charles Babbage
1822 Babbage's Difference
Engine
Analytical Engine

• 1833
• Used to perform a variety of calculations by following a
set of instructions or programs stored on punch cards
• Machine only designed but never built
Joseph Jacquard
 First Generation Computers
(1940-1956)

• The first computers used vacuum tubes(a sealed glass tube containing a near-vacuum
which allows the free passage of electric current.) for

circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

• They were often enormous and taking up entire room.

• First generation computers relied on machine language.

• They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions(defect or
breakdown).
• The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.
18
 First Generation Computers
Advantages :
• It was only electronic device
• First device to hold memory

Disadvantages :
• Too bulky i.e. large in size
• Vacuum tubes burn frequently
• They were producing heat
• Maintenance problems

© Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office,

19
The City School.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)
• It was the first general purpose computer.
• It was invented by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.
• It was primarily designed, and used, to calculate artillery
tables for the Army, it was also used to study the feasibility of thermonuclear bombs.
• It was octal based, rather than binary.

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)

• It was the successor to ENIAC, was binary based, and used stored programs,
and was also designed by Eckert and Mauchly,
 UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)

• The UNIVAC I was the very first commercially available

computer from the same people (Mauchly and Eckert)
that designed the ENIAC system.
• It was released in 1951.
• Numerous UNIVAC branded systems were released in
the years that followed
 Second Generation Computers
(1956-1963)
• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.
• Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic.
• High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as
early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
• These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory.

22
 Second Generation Computers
Advantages :
• Size reduced considerably
• The very fast
• Very much reliable

Disadvantages :
• They over heated quickly
• Maintenance problems

23
 Third Generation Computers
(1964-1971)

• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors.
• Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system.
• Allowed the device to run many different applications at one time.

24
 Third generation computers
Advantages :
• ICs are very small in size
• Improved performance
• Production cost cheap

Disadvantages :
• ICs are sophisticated

© Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office,

25
The City School.
 Fourth Generation Computers
(1971-present)
• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip.
• The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer.

• From the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

© Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office,

26
The City School.
Fourth Generation Computers

27
 Fifth Generation Computers
(present and beyond)
• Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence.
• Are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice
recognition.
• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality.
• The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

28
Fifth Generation Computers

29
 Memory hierarchy
In computer architecture, the memory hierarchy separates computer storage into a
hierarchy based on response time. Since response time, complexity, and capacity are
related, the levels may also be distinguished by their performance and controlling
technologies.

There are four major storage levels.

• Internal – Processor registers and cache.
• Main – the system RAM and controller cards.
• On-line mass storage – Secondary storage.
• Off-line bulk storage – Tertiary and Off-line storage.
Speed increases
Cost increases
Storage space decreases
Registers

Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and
transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The
registers used by the CPU are often termed as Processor registers.
Cache Memory

• The data or contents of the main memory that are used frequently by CPU are
stored in the cache memory so that the processor can easily access that data in a
shorter time.
• Whenever the CPU requires accessing memory, it first checks the required data
into the cache memory. If the data is found in the cache memory, it is read from
the fast memory.
• Otherwise, the CPU moves onto the main memory for the required data.
Main memory

• Main memory is where programs and data are kept when the processor is actively
using them. When programs and data become active, they are copied from
secondary memory into main memory where the processor can interact with them.
A copy remains in secondary memory.
• Main memory is intimately connected to the processor, so moving instructions and
data into and out of the processor is very fast.
Characteristics of Main Memory :
• These are semiconductor memories.
• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is the working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
• This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile.

• It is slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU

directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines.

• The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can

access it.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• These are magnetic and optical memories.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.
Tertiary storage

• Tertiary storage is a comprehensive computer storage system that acts very

slowly. Due to its slow process, it is used to archive data that we do not access.

• The tapes are now being relatively cheap and are available readily.

• Magnetic tape and optical disks are more inexpensive than magnetic disks, so the

low cost makes it economical to build storage sectors.

Primary Memory or Main memory

Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.

RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently. When you switch on the

computer the data and instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the computer the RAM loses

all the data.

ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are written on it at the time of

manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that contains all important data and instructions needed to perform

important tasks like the boot process.

The major differences between RAM and ROM are:

RAM ROM
Definition of RAM is Random Access Memory Definition of ROM is Read-only Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM) is expensive when compared ROM is cheaper when compared to RAM.
to ROM
The speed of Random Access Memory (RAM) is higher when The speed of Read-only Memory (ROM) is slower when compared
compared to ROM to RAM.
Random Access Memory (RAM) has a higher capacity when ROM has a lower capacity compared to RAM
compared to ROM
Data in RAM can be modified, erased, or read. Data in ROM can only be read, it cannot be modified or erased.

The data stored in RAM is used by the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) to process current instructions
Data stored on RAM can be accessed by the Central
Processing Unit.
The data stored in ROM is used to bootstrap the computer.
If the Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs to access the data on
ROM, first the data must be transferred to RAM, and then the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) will be able to access the data.

Data of RAM is very volatile, it will exist as long as there is Data present in Read-Only Memory (ROM) is not volatile, it is
no interruption in power. permanent. Data will remain unchanged even when there is a
disruption in the power supply.
Different types of RAM and ROM
Random Access Memory (RAM) is classified into two types. They are

• DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) – DRAM Is commonly used as the main memory for the

computer. Inside an integrated circuit, each DRAM memory cell consists of a transistor and a capacitor and a

data bit is stored in the capacitor. Because transistors often leak a small amount, the condensers gradually

discharge, allowing the information stored in it to drain thus, DRAM has to be refreshed every few

milliseconds (given a new electronic charge) to maintain data.

• SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) – SRAM is composed of 4 to 6 transistors. It holds data in the

memory as long as power is supplied to the device, unlike DRAM, which needs to be regularly refreshed. As

such, SRAM is more costly but quicker, making DRAM the more widespread memory in computer systems.
what is ECC memory?"
• Error correction code (ECC) memory is a type of RAM memory found in workstations and servers. It’s

valued by professionals and businesses with critical data for its ability to automatically detect and correct

memory errors, thus fighting data corruption.

• ECC RAM, or error-correcting code RAM, is a specialized type of memory that identifies and fixes the

most common errors which could otherwise lead to data corruption or system crashes.These are known as

single-bit errors.
 Read-Only Memory has three types in it. They are:-

• PROM–PROM or programmable ROM is a computer memory chip that can be programmed once it is
created. When the PROM is programmed, the written information is permanent and cannot be removed
or erased.
• EPROM–Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, EPROM is a non-volatile memory chip. When
exposed to ultraviolet light, an EPROM can be reprogrammed if necessary, but otherwise no new data
would be accepted or saved. Computer manufacturers use EPROM when it might be necessary to
modify the data stored on the EPROM. EPROM chips are not commonly used in computers and have
been replaced by EEPROM chips.
• EEPROM–The EEPROM is an electrically erasable programmable read-only memory which can be
erased and reprogrammed using an electrical charge.
• unlike most of the memory inside a computer, this memory remembers data when the power is
switched off.
• EEPROM was a substitute for the PROM and EPROM chips and is used for the BIOS of later
computers designed after 1994.
• Using an EEPROM machine helps a computer user to update the BIOS on their device without the
need to open the computer or remove chips.
OPERATING SYSTEM

• An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer

user and computer hardware.
• An operating system is a software which performs all the basic
tasks like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
• Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating
System, Windows Operating System, etc.
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users
Types of Operating Systems

1. Batch Operating System

2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems

3. Distributed Operating System

4. Network Operating System

5. Real Time Operating System

6. Embedded Operating Systems

7. Multiprogramming Operating System

8. Multiprocessor Operating System

9. Mobile Operating System

 1. Batch Operating System

• Batch operating system group’s jobs that perform similar types of

functions . These groups of jobs are called as batch and are executed at
the same time.
 • There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and group them into
batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.

Examples of Batch based Operating

System: Payroll System, Bank

Statements, etc.
 Advantages of Batch Operating System:

• Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
• Multiple users can share the batch systems
• The idle time for the batch system is very less
• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

• The computer operators should be well known with batch systems

• Batch systems are hard to debug

• It is sometimes costly

• The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –

• Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the
time of CPU as they use a single system.
• These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or
different users also.
• The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS
switches over to the next task.
• Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:
• Each task gets an equal opportunity
• Fewer chances of duplication of software
• CPU idle time can be reduced
• Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
• Reliability problem
• One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data
• Data communication problem
• Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.
3. Distributed Operating System –

• Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared

communication network.

• Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled

systems or distributed systems.

• These system’s processors differ in size and function.

• The major benefit of working with these types of the operating system is that it is always possible that one

user can access the files or software which are not actually present on his system but some other system

connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.
Advantages of Distributed Operating System:
• Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are independent from
each other
• Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
• Load on host computer reduces
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
• Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:
• Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
• To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well defined yet
• These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that the underlying
software is highly complex and not understood well yet
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, etc.
4. Network Operating System –

• These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions.
• These types of operating systems allow shared access of files, printers, security,
applications, and other networking functions over a small private network.
• One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well
aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their
individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly known
as tightly coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System:
• Highly stable centralized servers
• Security concerns are handled through servers
• New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated
into the system
• Server access is possible remotely from different locations and
types of systems
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
• Servers are costly
• User has to depend on a central location for most operations
• Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows
Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux etc.
5. Real-Time Operating System –
• These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small.

This time interval is called response time.

• Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air traffic

control systems, robots, etc.

Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:

1. Hard Real-Time Systems: These OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict and even the

shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags

which are required to be readily available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.

2. Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.
Advantages Examples
• Priority-Based Scheduling. • Airline traffic control systems.
• Abstracting Timing Information. • Command Control Systems.
• Maintainability/Extensibility. • Airlines reservation system.
• Modularity. • Heart Peacemaker.
• Promotes Team Development. • Network Multimedia Systems.
• Easier Testing. • Robotics.
• Code Reuse.
• Improved Efficiency.
Disadvantages
• Idle Processing.
• Limited Tasks.
• Use Heavy System resources.
• Complex Algorithms.
• Device driver and interrupt signals.
• Thread Priority.
Embedded Operating Systems

• An embedded operating system is a specialized OS for embedded systems. It aims to

perform with certainty specific tasks regularly that help the device operate.
• An embedded operating system often has limited features and functions. The OS may
perform only a single action that allows the device to work, but it must execute that
action consistently and timely.
• Embedded operating systems are built into Internet of Things devices. They are also
part of many other devices and systems. In most cases, embedded hardware doesn't
have much capacity and has fewer resources.
• So, the amount of processing power and memory is limited.
Advantages
• The OS is often low-cost.
• The OS tends to use few resources, including minimal power.
• The performance is generally trouble-free.
Disadvantages
• The OS can usually only run a single or very few applications.
• It is difficult to modify the OS once you establish a framework and build it into the device.
• Trouble-shooting the OS when there are issues can be difficult.
Examples
• Windows Mobile/CE (handheld Personal Data Assistants)
• Symbian (cell phones)

• Linux-based OS.
 Multiprogramming Operating System

• A multiprogramming operating system runs multiple programs on a single processor

computer.
• If a program waits for an I/O transfer, the other programs are ready to use the CPU.
As a result, various jobs may share CPU time. However, the execution of their jobs is
not defined to be in the same period.
 A multiprogramming OS is of the following two types:

• Multitasking OS: Enables execution of multiple programs at the same time. The
operating system accomplishes this by swapping each program in and out of
memory one at a time. When a program is switched out of memory, it is temporarily
saved on disk until it is required again.
• Multiuser Operating System: This allows many users to share processing time on a
powerful central computer from different terminals. The operating system
accomplishes this by rapidly switching between terminals, each of which receives a
limited amount of processor time on the central computer.
Multiprocessor Operating System

• Multiprocessor operating system utilizes multiple processors, which are connected with physical memory,
computer buses, clocks, and peripheral devices (touchpad, joystick, etc).
• The main objective of using a multiprocessor OS is to consume high computing power and increase the
execution speed of the system.
Mobile Operating System
• A mobile operating system is an operating system that helps run application software on mobile devices.

• It is the same kind of software as the famous computer operating systems Linux and Windows, but they

are light and simple to some extent.

• The operating systems found on smartphones include Symbian OS, IOS, BlackBerryOS, Windows Mobile,

Palm WebOS, Android, and Maemo.

• Android, WebOS, and Maemo are all derived from Linux.

• The iPhone OS originated from BSD and NeXTSTEP, which are related to Unix.

• It combines the power of a computer and the experience of a hand-held device. It typically contains a

cellular built-in modem and SIM tray for telephony and internet connections.
 Evolution of internet
• The internet started as an experiment in the late 1960s by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA , now called DARPA).
• DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Project Agency) in Department of defense had funded
some researcher , and the researchers needed to share their findings with each other . ARPA
decided to have such an infrastructure that could provide facility to exchange information
thereby reducing costs.
• World’s first operational network – ARPANET(Advanced Research Project Agency Network) – 1967

• It was developed under U.S Department Of Defense (DOD) , it was developed to survive nuclear
attack.
• It was the first network to implement the protocol suit TCP/IP.
• Each host computer would attached to a specialized computer called interface
message processor (IMP)
• Each IMP had to be able to communicate with each other IMPs as well as with its
own attached host.
• ARPANET consists of 4 main computers located at :
– University of California , Los Angeles .

– University of California , Santa Barbara

– The Stanford Research Institute.

– University of Utah.
 Scientific data base
1. Scopus
• Scopus is one of the two big commercial, bibliographic databases that cover scholarly literature from

almost any discipline. Beside searching for research articles, Scopus also provides academic journal

rankings, author profiles, and an h-index calculator.

– Coverage: approx. 71 million items

– References: 1.4 billion

– Discipline: Multidisciplinary

– Access options: Limited free preview, full access by institutional subscription only

– Provider: Elsevier
2. Web of Science

Web of Science also known as Web of Knowledge is the second big bibliographic database. Usually, academic
institutions provide either access to Web of Science or Scopus on their campus network for free.
• Coverage: approx. 100 million items
• References: 1.4 billion
• Discipline: Multidisciplinary
• Access options: institutional subscription only
• Provider: Clarivate (formerly Thomson Reuters)
3. PubMed
PubMed is the number one resource for anyone looking for literature in medicine or biological sciences.
PubMed stores abstracts and bibliographic details of more than 30 million papers and provides full text links
to the publisher sites or links to the free PDF on PubMed Central (PMC).
• Coverage: approx. 30 million items
• References: NA
• Discipline: Medicine, Biological Sciences
• Access options: free
• Provider: NIH
4. ERIC

• For education sciences, ERIC is the number one destination. ERIC stands for
Education Resources Information Center, and is a database that specifically hosts
education-related literature.
• Coverage: approx. 1.3 million items
• References: NA
• Discipline: Education science
• Access options: free
• Provider: U.S. Department of Education
5. IEEE Xplore

IEEE Xplore is the leading academic database in the field of engineering and computer science. It's not only journal
articles, but also conference papers, standards and books that can be search for.
•Coverage: approx. 5 million items
•References: NA
•Discipline: Engineering
•Access options: free
•Provider: IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
6. ScienceDirect

ScienceDirect is the gateway to the millions of academic articles published by Elsevier. 2,500 journals and
more than 40,000 e-books can be searched via a single interface.
•Coverage: approx. 16 million items
•References: NA
•Discipline: Multidisciplinary
•Access options: free
•Provider: Elsevier
7. Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)

The DOAJ is very special academic database since all the articles indexed are open access and can be
accessed freely of charge.
•Coverage: approx. 4.3 million items
•References: NA
•Discipline: Multidisciplinary
•Access options: free
•Provider: DOAJ
8. JSTOR

JSTOR is another great resource to find research papers. Any article published before 1924 in the United States is
available for free and JSTOR also offers scholarships for independent researchers.
•Coverage: approx. 12 million items
•References: NA
•Discipline: Multidisciplinary
•Access options: free
•Provider: ITHAKA
ACADEMIC SERVICE

1. INFLIBNET

2. NICENET

3. BRNET
 INFLIBNET

• INFLIBNET Is an Autonomous Inter-University Centre (IUC) of

University Grants Commission, Government of India.

• It is involved in creating infrastructure for sharing of library and

information resources and services among Academic and Research

Institutions.

• INFLIBNET (Information and Library Network) works

collaboratively with Indian university libraries to shape the future of the

academic libraries in the evolving information environment.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVES OF INFLIBNET

1. To promote and establish communication facilities to improve capability in information transfer and
access to knowledge, that provide support to scholarship, learning, research and academic pursuit
through cooperation and involvement of agencies concerned.
2. To establish INFLIBNET: Information and Library Network a computer communication network for
linking libraries and information centers in universities, deemed to be universities, colleges, UGC
information centers, institutions of national importance and R & D institutions, etc. avoiding
duplication of efforts.
3. Promote and implement computerization of operations and services in the libraries and information
centers of the country
4. Evolve standards and uniform guidelines in techniques, methods, procedures, computer hardware and software,
services and promote their adoption in actual practice by all libraries, in order to facilitate pooling, sharing and
exchange of information towards optimal use of resources and facilities.
5. Evolved a national network, interconnecting various libraries and information centers in the country, to improve
capability in information handling and service.
6. Provide reliable access to document collection of libraries by creating on-line union catalogue of serials,
theses/dissertations, books, monographs and non-book materials (manuscripts, audio-visuals, computer data,
multimedia, etc.) in various libraries in India.
7. Provide access to bibliographic information sources with citations, abstracts etc. through indigenously created
databases of the Sectoral Information Centers of NISSAT, UGC Information Centers, City Networks and such
others and by establishing gateways for on-line accessing of national and international databases held by national
and international information networks and centres respectively.
8. Develop new methods and techniques for archival of valuable information available as manuscripts
and information documents in different Indian Languages, in the form of digital images using high
density storage media.
9. Enable the users dispersed all over the country, irrespective of location and distance, to have access to
information regarding serials, theses/dissertations, books, monographs and non-book materials by
locating the sources wherefrom available and to obtain it through the facilities of INFLIBNET and
union catalogue of documents.
10. Create databases of projects, institutions, specialists, etc. for providing on-line information service.
11. Create databases of projects, institutions, specialists, etc. for providing on-line information service.
12. Encourage co-operation among libraries, documentation centers and information centres in the
country, so that the resources can be pooled for the benefit of helping the weaker resource
centers by stronger ones.
13. Train and develop human resources in the field of computerized library operations and
networking to establish, manage and sustain INFLIBNET.
14. Facilitate academic communication amongst scientists, engineers, social scientists, academics,
faculties, researchers and students through electronic mail, file transfer, computer/audio/video
conferencing, etc.
15. Collaborate with institutions, libraries, information centers and other organizations in India and
abroad in the field relevant to the objectives of the Centre
• NICENET is an organization of internet professionals, founded in 1995 with the
objective to make electronic communication tools and resources accessible for
education community.
• NICENET provides one of the most popular “Learning Management System”.
Advantages and features of NICENET are;
1. Internet Classroom Assistant (ICA2), a sophisticated communication tool that brings powerful
World-Wide-Web based conferencing, personal messaging, document sharing, scheduling and
link/resource sharing to a variety of learning environments.
2. The ICA2 incorporates many new features and responds to requests received from users. NICENET
provides the ICA2 free of charge with no advertising.
3. Anyone can set up a class in minutes and allow others to join. After login, users are presented with a
"heads-up" display of class resources.
4. Conferencing: Create your own private, threaded conferencing on topics you make for the class or
opt to allow students to create their own topics.
5. Scheduling: Put the class schedule on-line. With a seven day advance view on your class homepage,
students will have a heads-up display of upcoming assignments and class events.
6. Document sharing: Students and professors have the ability to publish their documents on
the site using simple web-based
7. No knowledge of HTML is needed. Automatically integrated with scheduling, students are
one click away from turning in their assignments on-line, giving their peers feedback on
published papers and receiving professors comments.
8. Personal Messaging: Similar to traditional email but fully integrated with document sharing
and conferencing, personal messaging is a great way communicate with and between
individuals in your class, comment privately on conferencing postings or give private
feedback on published papers.
9. Link Sharing: Share links to pertinent Internet resources sorted by topics that you create.
BRNET
• Bio-Resource Network (BRNet) is a prototype portal site for biological information.
• An initiative of Japan Science and Technology (JST) Corporation, BRNET is basically meant to
bring together biological information resources scattered over different networks for optimum
utilization.
• BRNET categorizes the information resources in such a manner that the end user can easily
search the desired information. Furthermore, it also allows the users to create their own bio
resources database
ACADEMIC SEARCH TECHNIQUES

• Using the internet for academic purpose is different from using it foe general purpose.

• Effective use of internet to get relevant information is a vital task.

• When conducting internet searches there are several very useful search techniques for finding

more reliable information.

1. use more than one search engine

2. use subject directories

3. Bookmarks and favorites

• Bookmark record an internet URL so you can
revisit it later without having to remember its
address.
• Microsoft internet explorer : favorite
• Other browser :bookmark
• Bookmarks are one of the early innovations of
the Mosaic web browser
• A knowledge of Bookmarks enables us to easily
revisit the sites without having to remember their
exact URL s .
1. Search Engines
1. A software program that searches for sites on the world wide web based on the words that the user
designate as search terms / keywords.
2. Have 3 parts
3. First part is a program called spider (web crawler) .Spider collects data on the web.
4. The second part of the search engine , an index program , organizes data into large database
5. When we use a search engine we interact with the third part : the search engine software
6. This software searches the indexed data , pulls out relevant information according to your search.
7. The search results are presented in a list – known as hits (sites that match your search)
• Each search engine uses a unique formula , or algorithm to formulate the search and create the resulting index of
related sites.
• Most search engines rank their results based on the frequency of the appearance of the queried keywords in the
websites.
• Google is a full-text search engine, which uses computerized "spiders" to index millions, sometimes
billions, of pages, allowing for much narrower searches than searchable subject index, which searches only
the titles and descriptions of sites, and doesn't search individual pages
• Google is case-insensitive. If you search for Three, tHRee, THREE, or even THREE, you get the same
results.
• Singular is different from plural. Searches for apple and apples turn up different pages
• The order of words matters. Google considers the first word most important, the second word next, and so
on.
• Google ignores most little words, including include "I," "where," "how," "the," "of," "an," "for," "from,"
"how," 'it," "in," and "is,”. Google ignores most punctuation, except apostrophes, hyphens, and quote
marks
• Google returns pages that match your search terms exactly
Some of the academic search techniques in the context of Google search engine are as follows.
1. Phrase Searches
• Enter key words search techniques. Google will find matches where the keywords appear anywhere on the
page
• If you want Google to find you matches where the keywords appear together as a phrase, surround them with
quotes, like this “search techniques”.
2. Basic Boolean
• Google's Boolean default is AND, which means that if you enter query words without modifiers, Google will
search for all your query words
• If you prefer to specify that any one word or phrase is acceptable, put an OR (in capital letter), lower case or
won’t work correctly. For example: enter Yahoo OR Google.
• A computer programming character | can work like OR (e.g. Yahoo | Google)
• If you want to search for a particular term along with two or more other terms, group the other terms within
parentheses, like so “search techniques” (Yahoo OR Google).
3. Negation
• If you want to specify that a query item must not appear in your results, prep end a (minus sign or
dash): “search techniques” –Google. This will search the pages that contain “search techniques”,
but not the word Google
• Note that the symbol must appear directly before the word or phrase that you don't want. If there's
space between, as in the following query, it won't work as expected “search techniques” – Google
4. Explicit Inclusion

• Google will search for all the keywords and phrases that you specify, however, there are certain words that
Google will ignore because they are considered too common to be of any use in the search (e.g. “a”, “the”,
“of”, etc.)
• You can force Google to take a stop word into account by prep ending a + (plus) character, as in +the “search
techniques”
5. Synonyms
• The Google synonym operator, the ~ (tilde) character, prep ended to any number of keywords in your
query, asks Google to include not only exact matches, but also what it thinks are synonyms for each
of the keywords. Searching for: ~ape turns up results for monkey, gorilla, chimpanzee, and others
(both singular and plural forms) of the ape or related family, as if you'd searched for: monkey gorilla
chimpanzee (Synonyms are bolded along with exact keyword matches on the results page, so they're
easy to spot)
6. Number Range
• The number range operator, .. (two periods), looks for results that fall inside your specified numeric range
(e.g. digital camera 3..5 megapixel $800..$1000)
• You can also use the number range syntax with just one number, making it the minimum or maximum of
your query (e.g. digital camera ..5 megapixel $800..)
7. Simple Searching and Feeling Lucky

Most of us do not notice an additional button on Google

homepage named as “I’m Feeling Lucky”. When you type
the keywords and click on this button Google will directly go
to the webpage of the first result. This indicates that the user
is feeling lucky to get what he was searching for.
2. Subject Directories

• A guide to the internet organized by topics and subtopics.

• Yahoo ! was one of the original subject directories , it still has a sub directory and a search engine feature.

How to use the subject directory ?

• You select the main subject from the directory , and you narrow your search by successively clicking on

subfolders that match your search until you have reached the necessary information.