Vision

Biological Psychology
Thirteenth Edition
Chapter 5
Vision
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

5.1 Visual Coding
• How far one sees is dependent on how far light travels

before it strikes one’s eyes
• Perception of vision is not in the eyes; it’s in the brain

General Principles of Perception
• Each of our senses has specialized receptors that are

sensitive to a particular kind of energy
• Law of specific nerve energies states that activity by
a particular nerve always conveys the same type of
information to the brain
– Example: impulses in one neuron indicate light; impulses
in another neuron indicate sound

The Eye and Its Connections to the Brain
• Light:
– Enters the eye through an opening in the center of the
iris called the pupil
– Is focused by the lens and the cornea onto the rear
surface of the eye known as the retina, which is lined
with visual receptors
– The left side of the world strikes the right side of the
retina and vice versa
– From above strikes, the bottom half of the retina and vice
versa

Light Passes through the following
Cornea - transparent outer layer (continuation of the Sclara)

Aqueous humor - fluid produced and reabsorbed between lens and cornea
Iris diaphram - pigmented muscle which can change the size of the
opening pupil
Lens - transparent structure that serves to bend light rays to focus them
on the receptors
vitreous humor - jelly like structure between lens and retina
retina - interior lining at back of eye which contains the receptor units
(contains rods & cones, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, amacrine and
horizontal cells)
NOTE: The function of the eye is to direct the phsical energy for vision
to the receptors in the retina and focus light there for maximum
visual acuity.
Ocular Anatomy
The eye is a fluid-filled
sphere enclosed by three
layers of tissue:
1) The outer layer is

composed of the sclera and
the cornea.
2) The middle layer includes

the iris, the ciliary body, and
the choroid.
3) The inner layer is the

actual retina containing the
photoreceptors.
Ocular Anatomy
En route to the retina, light
successively travels
through:
1) the cornea
2) the aqueous humor
of the anterior chamber
3) the pupil
4) the lens
5) the vitreous humor
Retina
Light strikes photoreceptors only

after passing through
sensory neurons, except at the
central retinal region
(fovea) where acuity is best.
RETINA
 Light passes through the pupil and is focused by
the lens onto the retina at the back of the eye
 The retina consists of three layers of cells


Ganglion cell layer

Bipolar layer

Photoreceptor layer: receptors in this layer
transduce light
 The ganglion cell layer is the outermost layer and

the photoreceptor layer is the innermost layer
 In order to reach the photoreceptor layer, light
actually passes through the outer two layers of

the retina
Retina
Visual information is transmitted from photoreceptors
to bipolar neurons and ganglion neurons before exiting
the eye via the optic nerve (II cranial nerve).
.
Photoreceptors
Route Within the Retina—Bipolar Cells
• Cells, located closer to the center of the eye, that

receive messages from visual receptors at the back of
the eye
• These cells send messages to ganglion cells that are
even closer to the center of the eye
– The axons of ganglion cells join one another to form the
optic nerve that travels to the brain

Route Within the Retina— Amacrine Cells
• Additional cells that receive information from bipolar

cells and send it to other bipolar, ganglion, or amacrine
cells
• Control the ability of the ganglion cells to respond to
shapes, movements, or other specific aspects of visual
stimuli

Cross-Section of a Vertebrate Eye

Visual Path Within the Eye

The Optic Nerve
• Consists of the axons of ganglion cells that band

together and exit through the back of the eye and travel
to the brain
• Leaves the back of the eye; the point at which it leaves
is called the blind spot because it contains no receptors

The Fovea (1 of 2)
• Is the central portion of the retina and allows for acute

and detailed vision
– Packed tightly with receptors
– Nearly free of ganglion axons and blood vessels

The Fovea (2 of 2)
• Each receptor (almost exclusively cones) in the fovea

attaches to a single bipolar cell and a single ganglion
cell known as a midget ganglion cell
• Each cone in the fovea has a direct line to the brain
which allows the registering of the exact location of
input
• Our vision is dominated by what we see in the fovea

The Periphery of the Retina
• In the periphery of the retina, a greater number of

receptors (primarily rods) converge into ganglion and
bipolar cells
– Detailed vision is less in peripheral vision
– Allows for the greater perception of much fainter light in
peripheral vision

Convergence of Input onto Bipolar Cells

The Difference Between Foveal and
Peripheral Vision
Characteristic Foveal vision Peripheral vision
Receptors Cones only Proportion of rods increases
toward periphery
Convergence of Input Each ganglion cell excited by a Each ganglion cell excited by
single cone many receptors
Brightness sensitivity Distinguishes among bright lights; Responds well to dim light; poor
responds poorly to dim light for distinguishing among
bright lights
Sensitivity Good detail vision because each Poor detail vision because many
to detail cone’s own ganglion cell sends a receptors converge their input
message to onto a given ganglion cell
the brain
Color Vision Good (many cones) Poor (few cones)

Visual Receptors: Rods and Cones (1 of 2)
• The vertebrate retina consists of two kinds of receptors

– Rods: most abundant in the periphery of the eye and
respond to faint light (120 million per retina)
– Cones: most abundant in and around the fovea (6 million
per retina)
 Essential for color vision and more useful in bright light

Visual Receptors: Rods and Cones (2 of 2)
• Though cones are outnumbered, they provide about 90

percent of the brain’s input
• On average, 120 million rods and 6 million cones
converge onto 1 million axons in the optic nerve
• The ratio of rods to cones is higher in species that are
more active at dim light

A Comparison of Rods and Cones

An Overview of the Mammalian
Visual System (1 of 2)
• Rods and cones of the retina make synaptic contact
with horizontal cells and bipolar cells
• Horizontal cells are cells in the eye that make inhibitory
contact onto bipolar cells
• Bipolar cells make synapses onto amacrine cells and
ganglion cells
• Different cells are specialized for different visual
functions

An Overview of the Mammalian
Visual System (2 of 2)
• Ganglion cell axons form the optic nerve
• The optic chiasm is the place where the two optic
nerves leaving the eye meet
• In humans, half of the axons from each eye cross to the
other side of the brain
• Most ganglion cell axons go to the lateral geniculate
nucleus, a smaller amount to the superior colliculus,
and fewer to other areas

The Vertebrate Retina

Anatomy of the Visual System
Photoreceptors
Lamella
A layer of membrane containing photopigments;

found in rods and cones of the retina.
Photopigment
A protein dye bonded to retinal, a substance

derived from vitamin A; responsible for
29 transduction of visual information.
Anatomy of the Visual System
Photoreceptors
Opsin
A class of protein that, together with retinal, constitutes
the photopigments.
Retinal
A chemical synthesized from vitamin A; joins with an
opsin to form a photopigment.
Rhodopsin
A particular opsin found in rods.
30
Photopigments
• Chemicals contained by both rods and cones that

release energy when struck by light
– Consist of 11-cis-retinal bound to proteins called opsins
– Light energy converts 11-cis-retinal quickly into all-trans-
retinal
– Light is thus absorbed and energy is released that
activates second messengers within the cell

Visual Transduction
l In the dark, membrane NA+ channels are open -> glutamate is
released which depolarizes the membrane
• The pigment, called iodopsin or rhodopsin, consists of large proteins
called opsin (situated in the plasma membrane), attached to a
covalently bound prosthetic group: an organic molecule called retinal
(a derivative of vitamin A).
 Light(photons) strikes rhodopsin and splits the opsin and retinal
apart->
 The retinal exists in the 11-cis-retinal form when in the dark, and
stimulation by light causes its structure to change to all-trans-retinal.
u Activates transducin (G protein)->
Visual Transduction
 Activates cGMP phosphodiesterase->
 cGMP Phosphodiesterase transforms cGMP to 5′-GMP, which causes
Na+ channels (which had been held open by the cGMP) to close.
 Reduces cGMP -> closes NA+ channels
Visual Pathway
The information about the image via the eye is transmitted to the brain
along the optic nerve.
Different populations of ganglion cells in the retina send information to
the brain through the optic nerve.
The optic nerves from both eyes meet and cross at the optic chiasm,at
the base of the hypothalamus of the brain.
At this point the information coming from both eyes is combined and
then splits according to the visual field
Information from the right visual field (now on the left side of the brain)
travels in the left optic tract.
Information from the left visual field travels in the right optic tract.
Each optic tract terminates in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in
the thalamus.
The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is a sensory relay nucleus in the
thalamus of the brain.
Processing in the Retina
• The lateral geniculate nucleus

– Part of the thalamus
– Specialized for visual perception
– Destination for most ganglion cell axons
– Sends axons to other parts of the thalamus and to the
visual areas of the occipital cortex
• The cortex and thalamus constantly feed information
back and forth to each other

Visual Pathway
About 90% of the axons in the optic nerve go to the lateral geniculate
nucleus in the thalamus.
These axons originate from the ganglion cells in the retina.
This parallel processing is important for reconstructing the visual world;
each type of information will go through a different route to
perception.
Another population sends information to the superior colliculus in the
midbrain, which assists in controlling eye movements as well as other
motor responses.
Visual Pathways
Information from each

visual field crosses
over at the optic
chiasm and projects to
the opposite side of
the primary visual
cortex
The visual cortex is the largest system in the human brain and is
responsible for processing the visual image.
It lies at the rear of the brain, above the cerebellum.
The region that receives information directly from the LGN is called the
primary visual cortex, (also called V1 and striate cortex).
Visual association cortex
Along with this increasing complexity of neural representation may
come a level of specialization of processing into two distinct
pathways: the dorsal stream and the ventral stream (the
Two Streams hypothesis,
The dorsal stream, commonly referred to as the "where" stream, is
involved in spatial attention (covert and overt), and communicates
with regions that control eye movements and hand movements. The
ventral stream, commonly referred as the "what" stream, is involved
in the recognition, identification and categorization of visual stimuli.
The Dorsal Stream
• From primary visual cortex dorsally to posterior parietal lobe
• Perceiving and remembering/imagining the location &
dimensions of visual stimuli
• This allows visual/motor coordination whenever we interact with
objects, visual search or scanning movements of eyes
Ventral Stream of Processing
• From primary visual cortex ventrally to inferior temporal lobe
• Recognizing, describing what objects or patterns are
• Color processing including remembering/imagining color of
things
• Object perception- damage to inferior temporal cortex causes
visual agnosia
The Ventral and Dorsal Streams (1 of 2)
• The ventral stream refers to the path that goes through

temporal cortex
– The “what” path
– Specialized for identifying and recognizing objects
• The dorsal stream refers to the visual path in the
parietal cortex
– The “how” path
– Important for visually guided movements

The Ventral and Dorsal Streams (2 of 2)
• Normal behavior makes use of both pathways in

collaboration
• Damaging either stream will produce different deficits
– Ventral stream damage: can see where objects are but
cannot identify them
– Dorsal stream damage: can identify objects but not know
where they are

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjJmNJd38C
Y&t=28s
Color Vision
• Visible light is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

• The perception of color is dependent upon the
wavelength of the light
• “Visible” wavelengths are dependent upon the species’
receptors
• Humans perceive wavelengths between 400 and 700
nanometers (nm)

Visible Light on the
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Specificity of Color Vision
• Depends on specific receptors within the eye

• Two major interpretations of color vision
– Trichromatic theory/Young-Helmholtz theory
– Opponent-process theory

Trichromatic Theory (1 of 2)
• Color perception occurs through the relative rates of

response by three kinds of cones
– Short-wavelength
– Medium-wavelength
– Long-wavelength

Trichromatic Theory (2 of 2)
• Each cone responds to a broad range of wavelengths,

but some more than others
• The ratio of activity across the three types of cones
determines the color
• More intense light increases the brightness of the color
but does not change the ratio
• Three kinds of cones are unevenly distributed

The Opponent-Process Theory
• Suggests that we perceive color in terms of paired

opposites
• The brain has a mechanism that perceives color on a
continuum from red to green and another from yellow to
blue
– A possible mechanism for the theory is that bipolar cells
are excited by one set of wavelengths and inhibited by
another

Limitations of Color Vision Theories
• Both the opponent-process and trichromatic theory

have limitations
– Color constancy, the ability to recognize color despite
changes in lighting, is not easily explained by these
theories
• Retinex theory suggests the cortex compares
information from various parts of the retina to determine
the brightness and color for each area

Color Vision Deficiency
• An impairment in perceiving color differences

– Gene responsible is contained on the X chromosome
– Caused by either the lack of a type of cone or a cone that
has abnormal properties
– Most common form is difficulty distinguishing between
red and green
 Results from the long- and medium-wavelength cones
having the same photopigment

Primate Receptive Fields
• Ganglion cells of primates generally fall into three

categories
– Parvocellular neurons
– Magnocellular neurons
– Koniocellular neurons

Parvocellular Neurons
• Mostly located in or near the fovea

• Have smaller cell bodies and small receptive fields
• Highly sensitive to detect color and visual detail

Magnocellular Neurons
• Distributed evenly throughout the retina

• Have larger cell bodies and visual fields
• Highly sensitive to large overall pattern and moving
stimuli

Koniocellular Neurons
• Have small cell bodies

• Found throughout the retina
• Have several functions, and their axons terminate in
many different places

The Primary Visual Cortex (1 of 2)
• The primary visual cortex (area V1) receives

information from the lateral geniculate nucleus and is
the area responsible for the first stage of visual
processing
• Some people with damage to V1 show blindsight: an
ability to respond to visual stimuli that they report not
seeing

The Primary Visual Cortex (2 of 2)
• Hubel and Weisel (1959, 1998) distinguished various

types of cells in the visual cortex
– Simple cells
– Complex cells
– End-stopped/hypercomplex cells

Properties of Simple, Complex, and
End-Stopped Cells
Characteristic Simple Cells Complex Cells End-Stopped Cells
Location V1 V1 andV2 V1 and V2
Binocular input Yes Yes Yes
Size of receptive Smallest Medium Largest

field
Receptive field Bar- or edge-shaped, Bat- or edge-shaped, but Same as complex cell but
with fixed excitatory and responding equally with a strong inhibitory zone
inhibitory zones throughout a large at one end
receptive field

Columnar Organization of the
Visual Cortex (1 of 2)
• In the visual cortex, cells are grouped together in
columns perpendicular to the surface
• Cells within a given column process similar information
– Respond either mostly to the right or left eye, or respond
to both eyes equally
– Do not consistently fire at the same time

Columnar Organization of the
Visual Cortex (2 of 2)

Visual Cortex Cells as Feature Detectors
(1 of 2)
• Cells in the visual cortex may be feature detectors,
neurons whose response indicate the presence of a
particular feature/stimuli
• Prolonged exposure to a given visual feature decreases
sensitivity to that feature

Visual Cortex Cells as Feature Detectors
(2 of 2)

Development of the Visual Cortex
• Animal studies have greatly contributed to the

understanding of the development of vision
• Early lack of stimulation of one eye: leads to synapses
in the visual cortex becoming gradually unresponsive to
input from that eye
• Early lack of stimulation of both eyes: cortical
responses become sluggish but do not cause blindness

Stereoscopic Depth Perception
• A method of perceiving distance in which the brain

compares slightly different inputs from the two eyes
– Relies on retinal disparity or the discrepancy between
what the left and the right eye sees
– The ability of cortical neurons to adjust their connections
to detect retinal disparity is shaped through experience

Strabismus (1 of 2)
• A condition in which the eyes do not point in the same

direction
– Usually develops in childhood
– Also known as “lazy eye”
• If two eyes carry unrelated messages, cortical cell
strengthens connections with only one eye
• Development of stereoscopic depth perception is
impaired

Strabismus (2 of 2)

Long-Term Consequences of Impaired
Infant Vision
• Study of people born with cataracts but had them
removed indicate that vision can be restored gradually,
but problems persist
– Difficulty in recognizing objects
– Unable to tell that components are part of a whole
– Best prognosis is for children whose vision problems are
corrected early in life

Visual Agnosia
• The inability to recognize objects despite satisfactory

vision
– Caused by damage to the pattern pathway usually in the
temporal cortex

Face Recognition—The Fusiform Gyrus

Recognizing Faces
• Face recognition occurs relatively soon after birth

– Newborns show strong preference for a right-side-up
face and support idea of a built-in face recognition
system
• Facial recognition continues to develop gradually into
adolescence

Prosopagnosia
• The impaired ability to recognize faces

– Occurs after damage to the fusiform gyrus of the inferior
temporal cortex
– The fusiform gyrus responds much more strongly to
faces than anything else

Motion Blindness
• The inability to determine the direction, speed and

whether objects are moving
– Likely caused by damage in area MT
• Some people are blind except for the ability to detect
which direction something is moving
– Area MT probably gets some visual input despite
significant damage to area V1

Vision

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Biological Psychology

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• How far one sees is dependent on how far light travels

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Each of our senses has specialized receptors that are

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Cornea - transparent outer layer (continuation of the Sclara)

1) The outer layer is

2) The middle layer includes

3) The inner layer is the

Light strikes photoreceptors only

 The retina consists of three layers of cells

 The ganglion cell layer is the outermost layer and

actually passes through the outer two layers of

• Cells, located closer to the center of the eye, that

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Additional cells that receive information from bipolar

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Consists of the axons of ganglion cells that band

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Is the central portion of the retina and allows for acute

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Each receptor (almost exclusively cones) in the fovea

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• In the periphery of the retina, a greater number of

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• The vertebrate retina consists of two kinds of receptors

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Though cones are outnumbered, they provide about 90

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

A layer of membrane containing photopigments;

A protein dye bonded to retinal, a substance

• Chemicals contained by both rods and cones that

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• The lateral geniculate nucleus

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Information from each

• The ventral stream refers to the path that goes through

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Normal behavior makes use of both pathways in

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Visible light is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Depends on specific receptors within the eye

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Color perception occurs through the relative rates of

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Each cone responds to a broad range of wavelengths,

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Suggests that we perceive color in terms of paired

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• Both the opponent-process and trichromatic theory

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

• An impairment in perceiving color differences