iv) Statistics deals with those aggregates which are subject to a number of random causes, e.g.

the heights of persons are subject to a

number of causes such as race, ancestry, age, diet, hab1ts, climate and so forth. Statistical laws are valid on the average or in the long
run. There is no guarantee that a contain Law will hold in all cases. Statistical inference IS therefore made in the face of uncertainty.
Statistical results might be misleading and incorrect if sufficient care· in collecting, processing and interpreting the data is not exercised
or if the statistical data are handled by a person who is not well ..
Descriptive and inferential Statistics .
Statistics as a subject, may be divided into ,privet statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics is that branch of statistics which deals with concepts and methods concerned summarization and description of
the imponant aspects of numerical data. This area of study of data, their graphical displays and the computation of a few numerical use
that provide information, about the Centre of the data an Statistics.
“The branch of statistics which deal with the collection presentation and analysis of data is called descriptive Statistics”
The spread of the Inferential statistics deals with procedures for making inferences ·about the characteristics that the large group of
data era the whole, called the population.
“A type of statistics which deal with the method of deriving conclusion about the population parameter on the basis of sample data is
called Inferential statistics”
Populations and Samples. A population or a statistical population is a collection or set IX possible observations whether finite or infinite,
relevant to some characteristic of interest.Variables. A characteristic that varies with an individual or an object, is called a variable. Age
is a variable as it varies from person to person. A variable can assume a number of The given set of all possible values from which the
variable takes on a value, is called its domain. Given, the domain of a variable contains only one value.
“The totality of the observation in the particular situation is known as population “
“The part of population is known as sample .Sample represent the population under statistical discussion”
Primary Data. The data collected for the first time for particular purpose for personal use are called primary Data. Data which are collected from primary
resources is known as primary Data.
Direct Personal Investigation, Indirect Investigation or Personal Interviews, Collection through Questionnaires, Computer interviews, Collection through Local
Sources.
Secondary data. Data which are not collected for the first time for particular purpose are called secondary data. Newspaper Book Internet, Internal Secondary
Data,
Data A collection of any numbers of related observation is known as data.
Variable A characteristic which can vary from one individual to another is called variable. Example height, colour , intelligence, Income.
ConstantA characteristic that doesn’t change under particular discussion/activity is called constant. Or A characteristic which take Only single values and doesn’t
change under different condition is known as constant.
Discrete or discontinues variable A variable that takes countable number of values is called discrete or discontinues variable. Example height of students, age of
students etc.
Continuous variable A variable that takes measureable number of values is called continuous variable. Example name of place , name of things, quality of any
things.
Significant Digit•. Accuracy in measurements is related to significant digits. The significant digits in a number, are those that represent accurate and meaningful
information. For instance, the
nun, bar 35 represent a continuous variable has two significant digits. In recorded measurements, all digits except zeros are always significant. For zeros, we
may state as:
i) b:ros are significant if they follow a decimal point and conclude a number, e.g. the measurement 2.500 has four significant digits.
ii) Zeros are non-significant when they follow a decimal point but commence a number, e.g. the measurements .04 and .000237 contain only 1 and 3 significant
digits respectively.
iii) Zeros may or may not be significant when they lie entirely to the left of the decimal point where they may not represent measurement but may be used 10
simply locate the notation point. In such a case, a definite ;;pacification such as standard notation, becomes notation When any number is expressed as a
product of a power of I 0 and a number between notation it is said to be written in standard notation.
Errors.. of Measurement. Experience has shown that a continuous variable Can never be measure with perfect fineness because of certain
habit and practice method of measurement instrument used etc. The measurements are thus always 'recorded correct to the nearest units and
hence’ are limited accuracy. The actual or the true value are however assume to exist. This sort of departure from the true value is ‘technically
known as the error of measurement.
Editing of Data. The primary data should 'be intensively checked at an early stage in order to locate incomplete or inconsistent
entries. If possible, the incomplete and defective questionnaires should returned to the respondents for amendments. In order
to accept the secondary data as authoritative, one old critically examine the reliability of the compiler and the suitability of the
data. The scope and object of the inquiry, sources of information and the degree of accuracy should be carefully should also
be carefully scrutinized.
Chapter 02. Presentation of Data
Presentation of Data
Ungroup data . Unarranged and un classified data are called ungroup data.
Group data. Data arranged in to their frequencies is known as group data.
Classification . A process of arranging data into sequences and group according to the characteristics is called classification.
Tabulation. A logical and systematic arrangement of statistical data into row and column is called tabulation.
Difference between classification and tabulation.
1) Classification is a part of data analysis while tabulation us the part of data presentation .
2) Classification is basis for tabulation because first the day is classified then tabulated .
Frequency . A number of time of an observation occur in a given data is called frequency.
Class frequency. A number of class which represent specific class is known as class frequency.
Class. A set of object having common characteristic is called class .or A group of observation of a particular series which is bounded by limits is called class.
Relative Frequency . A class frequency expressed as a ratio of the total frequency is called relative frequency.
What us frequency distribution? An arrangement of given Data In a form of table showing frequency with each variable occur is known as frequency
distribution.
Class limit. The end value of each class is called class limit . In other words the lower and uppers values of a class is called class limit.
Class boundary . The expect value which separate from one class to another class is known as class boundary .
Class interval. The difference between upper and lower class boundaries is called class interval.
Graph . Pictorial representation of relative changes between two quantities of which one varies as a result to change in the other is called graph. Graph
include both chart and diagrams .
Chart. A device which is used to present a statistical in a simple clear and effective manner is called chart.
Major two types of graph I) Graph of frequency distribution ( ii) Graph of time series
Histogram . A set of adjacent rectangle for a frequency distribution such that the area of each rectangle represent the corresponding class frequency is called
histogram.
A graph of frequency distribution is called Histogram.
Historigram . A curve which show the change in the value of one or more variable from one period of time to the next us called historigram. It is the frap of time series.
Frequency Curve . A curve which is derived from smoothed frequency polygon is called frequency Curve.
Ogive . The cumulative frequency polygon is called Ogive.
Cumulative Frequency . The cumulative frequency of particular classis the sum of frequency of that class and all previous class up to that class.
Frequency Polygon. A many sided close figure that represent frequency distribution is called frequency polygon.
Stub and Box Head . The space where column heading is written in the table is known as Box head . Row caption and the space where row heading is written in the
table is called Stub.
Why should Prefer pie chart ? Pie chart is preferred when we have categorical data because using pie chart would work Really well as each slice represent category
and it will be easy to interpret.
Chapter no 3 . Measure of Central tendency
Averages. A single value which represent the whole data is called average. Average is also called measure of Central tendency or measure of
location.
Characteristic of Good average .
I) An average can be easily calculated.
II) An average should be understandable.
III) An average should be base at normal not extreme.
Types of average (I) Arithmetic mean (ii) Geometric mean (iii) Harmonic mean (iv) Median (v) Mode
Why Average is also called measure of Central tendency.
Average is also called measure of Central tendency because average tend to lies the center of of observation.
Arithmetic mean. A figure which is calculated by dividing sum of all values in a given data by their number is called Arithmetic mean .
Merit of Arithmetic mean.
i) Arithmetic mean can be easily calculated. (Ii) Arithmetic mean can be easily understood.
Demerit Of arithmetic (I) Arithmetic mean is not effected with extreme value . (Ii) Further Algebraic treatment of Arithmetic mean is not
possible.
Median . The middle most value of arranged data is called median .
Merit of median
(I) Median is not effected with extreme value. (Ii) Median can be easily calculated.
Mode. The most common value of data is called mode .