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Graph Theory
Lecture - 4
Let G1(V1, E1) and G2(V2, E2) be two graphs. Then the graph
whose vertex set is V1V2 and the edge set E1 E2 is called
the union of G1 and G2 and it is denoted by G1 G2
G1 G2 = (V1 V2, E1 E2)
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• Intersection of two graphs
Let G1(V1,E1) and G2(V2,E2) be two graphs. Then the graph
whose vertex set is V1∩V2 and the edge set E1∩E2 is called
the intersection of G1 and G2 denoted by G1∩G2 is
G1∩G2 = (V1∩V2, E1∩E2), Provided V1∩V2 ≠ϕ
• Ring sum
Consider a graph whose vertex set is V1UV2 and the edge set
E1 E2, where is the symmetric difference of E1 and E2 then
G1 G2=(V1UV2, E1 E2) is called the ring sum of G1 and G2 .
Note: Symmetric difference means
E1E2 = (E1 – E2)U(E2 – E1)=(E1UE2) –(E1∩E2)
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• The following consequences of the above definition of union, intersection
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and ring sum
G1U G2 = G2U G1
G1 G2 = G2 G1
If G1 and G2 have no edge in common (edge-disjoint), then G1∩ G2 is a
null graph and G1 G2 = G1U G2
If G1 and G2 have no vertex in common (vertex-disjoint), then G1∩ G2
does not exist
Sometimes, we also write G1 + G2 for G1U G2 .
Note that G1,G2 ⊆ G1U G2 and G1∩ G2 ⊆ G1,G2.
G – U := G[V \U, E], G – F := (V, E \F ), G + F := (V, E U F ).
If U = {u} or F = {e} then we simply write G – u, G – e and G + e for G
– U, G – F and G + F , respectively.
The complement of G, denoted by G or GC, is defined as the graph (V;
V1V2\ E). In particular, G + G is a complete graph, and G = (G + G) – E. 4
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V2 V2
V1 V1 V6
V3
V3
V5 V4
V4 G2
G1
V1 V2 V6
V2
V1 V6 V1 V2
V5 V4 V3
V5
V4 V3 V4 V3 G1G2
G1UG2 G1∩G2
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Complement of Graph
Operations on Graphs
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• The cartesian product G x H of graphs G and H is defined as follows:
label the vertices of H in some way;
in a copy of G, replace each vertex of G by a copy of H;
add an edge joining vertices in two adjacent copies of H if and only if they
have the same label.
In other words, if G has vertex set V(G) = {a1, a2, ... , ag } and H has vertex
set V(H) = {b1,b2 , … ,bh } , then G x H has vertex set V(G) x V(H), and the
edges set of G x H is defined as follows: (ai , bj ) is adjacent to (ak , bl) if
ai = ak and bj ∼ bl or (∼ represents adjacent)
bj = bl and ai ∼ ak
It is clear that G x H and H x G are isomorphic. Similarly (G x H) x J and
G x (H x J) are isomorphic.
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Cartesian Product: Example
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Let’s create P3 × P2 as an example:
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Cartesian Product: Example
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(a1 , b3)
(a1 , b2)
(a1 , b1) (a1 , b4)
(a2 , b3)
(a2 , b2)
(a2 , b1) (a2 , b4)
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Operations on Graph
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• Decomposition
A graph G is said to be decomposed (or partitioned) into two
subgraphs H1 and H2 if H1H2 = G and H1∩H2= a null graph.
Where the null graph is one without any edges. In other words,
every edge of G occurs either in H1 or in H2, but not in both.
Some of the vertices, however, may occur in both H1 and H2 .
• Deletion
If v is a vertex in a graph G, then G-v denotes the subgraphs of G
obtained by deleting v and all edges incident on v from G, then G-v is
called vertex deleted subgraph of G.
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B B
B
e
C
A C A C
A
v D
v D
D
G G-e
G-v
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• Fusion
A pair of vertices Vi and Vj in a graph are said to be fused (or
merged) if these two vertices are replaced by a single new vertex v
in such a way that every edge that was incident on Vi or Vj (or both)
is incident on v.
D
A A
C
C v
B B
E
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Distance in Connected Graph
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Example
• If
G is a connected graph, the distance function D(x, y) has
the following properties for all vertices x, y and z:
(i) D(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;
(ii) D(x, y) = D(y, x);
(iii) D(x, y) + D(y, z) ≥ D(x, z).
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Radius, Diameter and Eccentricity
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• Suppose G is a connected graph and x is a vertex of G. The eccentricity
ε(x) of x is the largest value of D(x,y), where y ranges through all the
vertices. i.e. ε(x) = max{D(x,y): y in V(G)}.
• The distance from a particular vertex to all other vertices in the graph is
taken and among those distances, the eccentricity is the highest of
distances.
• The diameter Dim = Dim(G) is the maximum value of ε(x) for all vertices
x of G. Thus, Dim(G) = max{ε(x): x in V(G)}.
• The radius R = R(G) is the smallest value of ε(x).
Therefore, R(G) = min{ε(x): x in V(G)}.
• The minimum among all the maximum distances between a vertex to all
other vertices is considered as the radius of the Graph G.
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Example
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• Find ε(x) for every vertex x of the graph G of Figure given below.
What are the diameter and radius of this graph?
The vertices most distant from a are c and e, so ε(a) = D(a, c) = D(a,
e) = 3. Similarly ε(b) = D(b, c) = D(b, e) = 2, ε(c) = D(c, a) = D(c,
d) = 3, ε(d) = D(d, c) = 3, ε(e) = D(e, a) = 3, ε(f) = D(f, a) = D(f,
d) = 2. So Dim(G) = 3 and R(G) = 2.
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Example
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• Find ε(x) for every vertex x of the graph G of Figure given below.
What are the diameter and radius of this graph?
The vertices most distant from a are c and e, so ε(a) = D(a, b) =
D(a, c) = D(a, c) = 1. Similarly ε(a) = D(a, e) = D(a, f) = 2, ε(a) =
D(a, g) = 3. Similarly, ε(b) = ε(c) = ε(e) = ε(f) = ε(g) = 3 & ε(d) =
2.
Dim(G) = 3.
R(G) = 2.
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Example
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Cutpoints and Bridges
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• Among connected graphs, some are connected so slightly that removal
of a single vertex or edge will disconnect them. Such vertices and
edges are quite important.
• A vertex x is called a cutpoint in G if G – x contains more components
than G does; in particular if G is connected, then a cutpoint is a vertex
x such that G – x is disconnected.
• Similarly, a bridge (or cutedge) is an edge whose deletion increases
the number of components.
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Example
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