EARTHQUAKE BELTS

 encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean.

 extend down the entire length of the mid-

Atlantic ocean.

 stretch across southern Europe and Asia,

linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES

Plate: huge slab or fragment of the earth crust. It is about

50km thick. It includes the earth’s crust and the upper
part of the mantle. It is created by convection current.
Plates float like rafts on the mantle. Plates consist of
continental and oceanic.

Plate Tectonic: it is the movement of plates.

Plate boundary/margin: the point where two or more
plates meet. It is the point where most of the world’s
earthquake, volcanic eruptions and high mountain ranges
occur.
 EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES

TYPES OF PLATE MOVEMENTS

-Constructive/Diverging margin or boundary(Sea floor
spreading).
-Destructive/Converging margin or boundary (creates
subduction).
-Collision margin or boundary(two continental plates move
towards each other mostly forming mountains)
- Conservative margin or boundary.
Types of Description Earthquake/ Location/
Plate of changes Volcanic Examples
movement Activity

Constructive Two plates Gentle Mid-Atlantic

plate move away volcanic and Ridge.
boundary/mar from each earthquake Eg. Iceland
gin other. New activity
oceanic crust
appears
forming mid-
ocean ridges
with
volcanoes
Types of Description Earthquake/ Location/
Plate of changes Volcanic Examples
movement Activity

Destructive Oceanic crust Violent Nazca and

plate moves volcanic and South
boundary/mar towards earthquake American
gin continental activity Plates, Cocos
crust but and North
being heavier American
sinks and is Plates, Juan
destroyed, de Fuca and
forming deep North
sea trenches American
and island Plates
arcs with
volcanoes
Types of Description Earthquake/ Location/
Plate of changes Volcanic Examples
movement Activity

Collision Two earthquake Indo-

margins/zones continental activity but no Australian and
plates collide volcanic Eurasian
and as neither activity Plates.
can sink, are Eg. Himalayas
forced up into
fold mountains
Types of Description Earthquake/ Location/
Plate of changes Volcanic Examples
movement Activity

Conservative Two plates Can be violent Pacific and

margin move earthquake North
sideways past activity(no American
each other- volcanic Plates.
land is neither activity) Eg. San
formed nor Andreas,
destroyed California.
EARTH’S TECTONIC PLATES
 Conservative
CONSTRUCTIVE MARGIN
EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of

the crust due to movement of the earth's
plates (plate tectonics). Earthquakes can
happen along any type of plate boundary

The point inside the earth's crust where the

pressure is released is called focus. The
point above the focus, on the earth's surface
is called the epicentre.
Seismic wave: a wave or vibration which
travels within the earth or through the rocks.
FORMATION OF AN EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE

The diagram illustrates how the movement of

two plates at the plate boundary creates
pressure deep inside the earth. This pressure
travels from the focus up to the earth's crust
and escapes at the epicentre of the earthquake.
The pressure, released at the epicentre, travels
outwards in all directions in rings (seismic
waves). The waves are felt most strongly at the
epicentre, becoming less strong as they travel
further away.
WHY EARTHQUAKE OCCUR IN PLATE BOUNDARIES

-plates move
-friction as plates get locked together
-build up of pressure
-pressure release due to sudden jolt of
plates
-seismic waves/vibrations on surface
-existence of faults as lines of weakness
where plates move in different directions at
different pace.
 MEASUREMENT OF AN EARTHQUAKE

The intensity of an earthquake is recorded by

a seismometre /seismograph.
The strength or magnitude of an earthquake is
measured either by a Richter scale or
Mercalli scale.
The Richter Scale is numbered 0-10 while the
Mercalli Scale is numbered 0-12.
Primary effects of an earthquake
 shaking ground
 faulting
 subsidence or uplift of the earth surface
 collapse of buildings, bridges, freeways,
overhead,etc
 tilting electric or telegraphic poles
 falling cables.
 Secondary effects of an earthquake
 fires caused by broken gas pipes and ruptured
electric mains
 death
 disruption of electricity, gas or water supplies
 closure of industries
 contaminated water resulting in water borne
diseases like bilharzia, cholera, etc.
 landslides.
 people made homeless due to destruction of
buildings.
 tsunami
Extent of damage depends on

depth of focus
duration of earthquake
distance from the epicentre
 geological and soil conditions
time of day
place of occurrence

.
 Effects
 short-term (immediate) impacts
 long-term impacts
 social impacts (the impact on people)
 economic impacts (the impact on the
wealth of an area)
 environmental impacts (the impact on the
landscape)
Short Term : Social
 People may be killed or injured.
 Homes may be destroyed.
Essential services may be disrupted. For
instance, transport and communication links
are disrupted or destroyed, water pipes may
burst and water supplies may be
contaminated.
 Economic

 Shops and business are destroyed or

closed.
 Looting may take place.
 Transport and communication systems
are disrupted, thus, affecting trading
activities.
 Environmental

 The built landscape is destroyed. For

instance, fires spread due to gas pipe
explosions, fires can damage areas of
woodland.
Landslides may occur.
Tsunamis may cause flooding in coastal
areas.
 Long Term
 Disease may spread.
People may have to be re-housed, sometimes in
refugee camps
 The cost of rebuilding a settlement is high.
Investment in the area is focused only on
repairing the damage caused by the earthquake.
 Income is lost
 Important natural and human landmarks may be
lost
 Reasons why long-term effects are difficult to
deal with
 high cost especially countries with low GNP.
 devastation may cover a wide area, thus,
affecting many people.
 high intensity or magnitude of disaster.
 damage to infrastructure with its effects on the
economy.
 impacts on food supplies/famine.
 lack of hospitals/health care hinder recovery
 homelessness.
 psychological impacts.
 Earthquake Prediction
 Installing sensitive instruments that can record
earth tremors (seismometres), pressure and any
release of radon gas.
 Map epicentres and frequencies of previous
earthquakes to see if there is a location and/or
time pattern (this can only give possible timings
of an event and not a precise location)
 Observe unusual animal behaviour – dogs
howling, fish jumping, mice fleeing houses (less
scientific but has proved useful)
Earthquake preparation to reduce short term
effects
 Constructing buildings and roads to withstand
earthquakes (e.g. San Francisco)
 Training emergency services and having them
available, e.g. helicopters, ambulances and fire
engines.
 Move away from areas of instability to open
places.
 Forecasting/warning to public.
 Emergency food/water supplies.
Building to withstand Earthquake
VOLCANOES/VOLCANIC ERUPTION

A volcano is a mountain that opens down

to a pool of magma between the crust and
mantle.
A volcanic eruption is the sudden explosion
which occurs when molten rock, ash and
steam pour through a vent/pipe in the
earth's crust.
Volcanoes are described as: active,
dormant and extinct.
Active Volcano: volcano that has erupted in
modern times/most recent and will erupt again.
Egs. Mt. St Helens(USA), Mt. Merapi
(Indonesia).

Dormant volcano: volcano deemed to be resting

but could erupt again in the future. Egs. Mauna
Kea(Hawaii), Mt. Kilimanjaro(Tanzania).

Extinct volcano: volcano deemed to be dead and

will not erupt again. Eg. Mt. Kulal(Kenya), Mt.
Chimborazo(Ecuador).
Causes of a volcano

- plate tectonics
- plumes of magma at edges of plate force their
way to the surface from deep within the mantle.
- Destruction of crust through faulting
VOLCANOES/VOLCANIC ERUPTION
VOLCANOES/VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Ring of Fire: volcanic chain surrounding the
pacific ocean. It is formed along a destructive
plate boundary.

Reasons why volcanic eruptions are

concentrated in certain parts like Ring of fire
-Existence of plate boundaries
-Enormous friction or heat due to plate tectonic.
-Destruction of crust
-Rising of magma through fractures.
MAIN FEATURES OF AN ACTIVE VOLCANO
VOLCANOES/VOLCANIC ERUPTION

Features of a volcano
-Crater/Caldera
-Pipe/Vent
-Conelet or Parasitic/Subsidiary cone
-Fissure
-Magma chamber
-lava dome
VOLCANOES/VOLCANIC ERUPTION

Types of Volcanoes
-Shield Volcanoes(txtbk page 97)
-Composite/ Strato-volcanoes(txtbk page
98)

What comes out of a volcano?

i. liquids- water, molten rock/lava
ii. solids-ash or cinder, lahar(melted snow
or water mixed with volcanic ash)
 VOLCANOES/VOLCANIC ERUPTION

iii. Gases-water vapour, sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.
(Refer to txtbk page 97)

Effects of volcanic eruption

-Loss of lives. Eg. Merapi volcano(Indonesia)
killed over 60 people.
-Destruction of villages or settlements by lahar
or lava flow.
 VOLCANOES/VOLCANIC ERUPTION

-Destruction of communication routes like

roads or air transport.eg. Catania airport of
Italy was closed during the eruption of Mt. Etna
on roads covered with ash creating flight
cancellation.
-Destruction of farmlands by heavy fall of ash.
-Destruction of forests by fires started by the
flow of lava/lahar/hot ash.
Ways to reduce the adverse effects/dangers of
volcanoes/volcanic eruptions
- Lava flow diversion
- Mudflow barriers
- Building design
- Volcano monitoring
- Remote sensing
- Hazard mapping and planning
- Dropping of concrete slabs into flow to halt
the advance of lava
 Opportunities/Advantages of Volcanoes
- Geothermal power
- Fertile soils
- Tourism(eg. Iceland, Canary Islands)
- Minerals and mining
- Creating and enlarging landmasses
 Reasons why some volcanoes emit lahar or
mudflow
-Snow capping on volcanoes and coming into
contact with molten rock.
- Huge water content of magma
- Heavy rainfall during eruption
- Flow down steep slopes
 Why mudflows present problems for people
living around such volcanoes
• loss of life
• destroy buildings/homes
• inundate farmland/destroy crops/livestock
• disrupt communications
• bring down power lines/damage water pipes
• destroy workplaces/damage factories
• occur without warning/at great speed
 Signals or detection of volcanic eruptions

- Swelling of the land. This could be detected or

measured by a tiltmeter and satellite global
positioning systems.
- Rising of ground temperatures as magma
upwells. This is detected by satellites using
heat- seeking cameras.
- Rise in seabed causing tides
- Occurrence of an earthquake beneath a crater
- Rising temperature of hot springs.
Reasons why people live in volcanic-prone areas

- Geothermal power. Eg. Iceland/New Zealand

- Fertile soils aiding agriculture
- Tourism. Eg. Mt. Etna volcano attracted the
residents of Messina and Catania, thus,
revenue generation.
- Minerals and mining
- Confident in prediction thus willing to take risk
- Family ties or friends as they have lived there
all their lives.
- Working in the area, thus, difficult to leave.
FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS,
EARTHQUAKE & VOLCANOES
Collision Margin
Two plates of continental crust(Indian and
Eurasian plate) move towards each other, as
neither can sink nor destroyed, the rocks
between them are forced upwards forming fold
mountain. Eg. Mt. Everest.
Destructive Margin
Oceanic plate(Nazca plate of the South Pacific
ocean) moves towards continental plate(South
American plate). When they meet, the oceanic
FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKE &
VOLCANOES
crust subducts, thus, melting. Some of the
newly formed magma being lighter than the
mantle rise to the surface to form long chain
fold mountains(Andes) or volcanoes
(Chimborazo and Cotopaxi).

At destructive margins, the rising magma could

also form Island arcs (Aleutian Island arc)
At destructive margins, subduction could trigger
an earthquake.
FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKE &
VOLCANOES
Conservative margin
When two plates slide past one another (Pacific
and North American plates) or stick together
(like machine without an oil), sufficient pressure
builds up resulting in the jerking forward of one
of the plates this sends shockwaves to the
surface causing an earthquake.
FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKE &
VOLCANOES

Constructive margin
Plates move away from each other(North
American plate and Eurasian plate) causing
magma to rise to fill up any possible gap and
forming a new oceanic crust thus causing
volcanic activity.
Processes and structural features associated with
a mid-oceanic plate boundary
* plates move apart/diverge
• sea floor spreading
• fractures
• earthquakes
• rising magma/sea floor volcanoes
• solidifies/new crust/piles up
• oceanic ridge/volcanic islands
• tsunamis