SUSTAINING THE

MILLER/SPOOLMAN EARTH | G. TYLER MILLER | SCOTT E. SPOOLMAN

11e

3
Biodiversity and
Evolution

© Cengage Learning 2015

3-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why
Is It Important?
• Biodiversity = the enormous variety of life on Earth.
• The variety of genes, organisms, species, and
ecosystems in which organisms exist and interact
• Includes every living thing; plants, bacteria, animals, and
humans
• Also used to refer to all of the species in one region or
ecosystem
• Biodiversity is a crucial part of the earth’s natural capital
• The earth’s biodiversity helps keep us alive and supports
our economies

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 Functional Diversity The biological and chemical Ecological Diversity The variety of
processes such as energy flow and matter recycling terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found
needed for the survival of species, communities, in an area or on the earth.
and ecosystems.

Genetic Diversity The variety Species Diversity The number and

of genetic material within a abundance of species present in
species or a population. different communities.
Fig. 3-1
Extinction

• Throughout most of earth’s

history, species have
disappeared at a low rate,
called the background extinction
rate.
• Based on the fossil record and
analysis of ice cores drilled from
glaciers, biologists estimate that
the average annual background
extinction rate has been one to
five species per year for each
million species on the earth.

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Mass Extinction

• Mass extinction is a significant rise in extinction rates

above the background level.
• Catastrophic, widespread, and often global event
• 25%–95% of all species are wiped out worldwide in a
few million years or less
• Fossil and geological evidence indicate that the earth’s
species have experienced at least three and probably
five mass extinctions (20 million to 60 million years
apart) during the past 500 million years
• We are now witnessing the earth’s 6th mass extinction –
this time because of human activities
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Extinction is Forever

• Because of human activities current

extinction rates are 100 to 10,000 times
higher than the natural rate of extinction
• In 2005, the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment estimated that 12% of birds,
25% of mammals, and at least 32% of
amphibians will be threatened with
extinction in this century.
• Endemic species – those found only in one
area – are particularly vulnerable
• Can you give examples of species that
have become extinct because of human
activity? What species are currently
endangered?
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Extinction is Forever

The Golden toad

• Once was found in a small
area of rain forests in Costa
Rica’s mountains region
• Despite living in the
country’s well protected
area, by 1989 the golden
toad had become extinct.
– Climate change was the
Why are frogs disappearing?
leading cause ( altering
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
temperatures, precipitation NvP6j4Dj0VA
rates, pollution)
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© Cengage Learning 2015
3-4 What Are Biomes and How Have
Human Activities Affected Them?
• Biomes = large regions, each characterized by
certain types of climate and dominant plant life.
• Climate helps to determine the nature of biomes
– Climate differences due to:
• Average annual precipitation (rain and
snowfall)
• Average temperature

© Cengage Learning 2015

Fig. 3-4
 Cold

Arctic tundra

Evergreen coniferous forest Cold desert

Temperate
desert
Temperate deciduous forest
Chaparral Temperate
grassland

Hot Tropical desert

Tropical rain forest
Wet Dry

Tropical grassland (savanna)

Fig. 3-5
Humans Have Disturbed Most of
the Earth’s Lands
• Environmental destruction and degradation is
increasing in many parts of the world
• According to the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, about 62% of the world’s major
terrestrial ecosystems are being degraded or
used unsustainably
– Preserving natural capital will require
• Protecting remaining wild areas from development
• Restoring many of the land areas that have been
degraded
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 Natural Capital Degradation
Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems

Deserts Grasslands Forests Mountains

Large desert cities Conversion to Clearing for Agriculture

cropland agriculture, livestock
Destruction of soil and grazing, timber, and Timber and
Release of CO2 to
underground habitat urban development mineral extraction
atmosphere from
by off-road vehicles burning grassland Conversion of
diverse forests to Hydroelectric dams
Depletion of Overgrazing by tree plantations and reservoirs
groundwater livestock
Damage from off- Air pollution blowing in from
road vehicles urban areas and power plants
Land disturbance and Oil production and
pollution from mineral off-road vehicles Pollution of forest Soil damage from off-road
extraction in arctic tundra streams vehicles

Fig. 3-6
3-5 What Are Aquatic Life Zones and How
Have Human Activities Affected Them?
Water covers most of the
earth and sustains biodiversity
• Saltwater covers 71% of
the planet and contains
97% of the earth’s water
• Freshwater covers less
than 2.2 % of earth’s
surface
Aquatic life zones
• Saltwater
• Freshwater

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 Ocean hemisphere Land–ocean hemisphere

Fig. 3-7
Water Covers Most of the Earth and
Sustains Biodiversity (cont’d.)

Aquatic life zones (cont’d.)

– Key factors determining types and numbers of
organisms in different layers
• Water temperature
• Dissolved oxygen content
• Food availability
• Availability of light and nutrients for photosynthesis

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Oceans Provide Important Ecosystem
and Economic Resources

• Reservoirs of diversity in two major life

zones
– Coastal zone
• Less than 10 percent of world’s ocean
• Ninety percent of all marine species
• High NPP (Net Primary Productivity) per unit of
area
– Open sea
• Vertical zones: euphotic, bathyal, and abyssal
(determined by access to light)
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 High tide Coastal Open
Low tide Depth in
Zone Sea
Sea level meters

Photosynthesis
Estuarine Euphotic
Zone Zone

Continental
shelf

Twilight
Bathyal Zone

Water temperature
drops rapidly between Abyssal
Zone

Darkness
the euphotic zone and
the abyssal zone in an
area called the
thermocline.

Fig. 3-9 Water temperature (°C)

 Natural Capital
Marine Ecosystems
Ecological Economic
Services Services
Oxygen Food
supplied through
photosynthesis Energy from
waves and tides
Water purification
Climate Pharmaceuticals
moderation
CO2 absorption Harbors and
transportation
Nutrient cycling routes
Reduced storm
Recreation and
impact (mangroves,
tourism
barrier islands,
coastal wetlands) Employment
Biodiversity:
Minerals
species and habitats
Fig. 3-8
Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Marine Systems
Major threats to marine
systems
– Coastal development
– Overfishing (watch:
https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=WNdR80
8jMSA
)
– Runoff of nonpoint
source pollution
– Point source pollution
– Habitat destruction
© Cengage Learning 2015
 Natural Capital Degradation
Major Human Impacts on Marine Ecosystems and Coral
Reefs
Marine Ecosystems Coral Reefs

Half of coastal wetlands lost to Ocean warming

agriculture and urban development
Rising ocean acidity
Over one-fifth of mangrove forests
lost to agriculture, aquaculture, Soil erosion
and development Algae growth from
Beaches eroding due to fertilizer runoff
development and rising sea levels Bleaching
Ocean bottom habitats degraded Rising sea levels
by dredging and trawler fishing Increased UV exposure
At least 20% of coral reefs Damage from anchors
severely damaged and 25–33% and from fishing and
Fig. 3-10 more threatened diving
Why Are Freshwater Ecosystems
Important?
• Standing (lentic) freshwater bodies
– Lakes
– Ponds
– Inland wetlands
• Flowing (lotic) freshwater systems
– Streams
– Rivers

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Why Are Freshwater Ecosystems
Important?

Types of lakes
• Oligotrophic: Small supply of
nutrients, resulting in low
productivity.
• Mesotrophic: Water is
moderately clear, intermediate
level of productivity.
• Eutrophic: Large supply of
nutrients, resulting in higher
productivity.

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 Natural Capital

Freshwater Systems
Ecological Economic
Services Services

Climate Food
moderation

Nutrient cycling Drinking water

Waste treatment
Irrigation water
Flood control
Hydroelectricity
Groundwater
recharge
Transportation
Habitats for many corridors
species

Genetic resources Recreation

and biodiversity
Employment
Scientific
information
Fig. 3-11
Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Freshwater Systems
• Dams and canals
– Fragment the world’s largest
rivers by reducing water flow and
increasing damage from costal
storms (watch:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=XfJdTCmkoaA
)
• Flood control levees and dikes
– Disconnect rivers from their
floodplains and destroy aquatic
habitat and reduce the function of
nearby wetlands.

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Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Freshwater Systems
• Pollutants from cities and
farms
– Impact water quality
• Wetlands
– Drained to grow crops,
or they have been
covered with concrete,
asphalt, and buildings
(35% lost worldwide
since 1970).
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Two Big Ideas

1. Human activities are decreasing the

earth’s vital biodiversity by causing the
premature extinction of species and by
disrupting habitats needed for the
development of new species.

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Two Big Ideas (cont’d.)

2. Differences in climate, based mostly on

long-term differences in average
temperature and precipitation, largely
determine the types and locations of the
earth’s terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems, and human activities are
degrading and disrupting many of the
ecological and economic services
provided by these systems.
© Cengage Learning 2015