FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

FLA 601 - CROP REGULATION IN ORNAMENTAL CROPS

Lecture No. 3
Phytochrome- Forms – Role of phytochrome in Short Day Plants (SDP)
and Long Day Plants (LDP), importance of Phytochrome in
photoperiodism - Photoperiodic requirement of some flower and
ornamentals- Artificial Short day and long day
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Phytochrome
• It is a biological, proteinaceous pigment that absorbs light. It is a non- photosynthetic,
photoreceptor pigment.
• Mature leaves are the site of production of these stimuli.
• Two types pf phytochromes:
• Red light absorbing form which is designated as Pr.
• Far-red absorbing form which is designated as Pfr.
• It is a pigment found in some plant cells that has been proven to control plant
development.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

• When Pr form of the pigment absorbs red light (660-665 nm), it is converted into
Pfr form.
• When Pfr form of the pigment absorbs far-red light (730-735 nm) converted into Pr
form.
• The Pfr form of the pigment gradually changes into PR form in the dark.
• Plants measure the ratio of Pfr/Pr.
• LDP would flower when the ratio is high.
• SDP would flower when the ratio is low.
• Since Pfr is liable to change and is broken down at night it reverts back to Pr.
• The longer the night, the lower the phytochrome (Pfr) content.
• The relative amount of Pfr remaining at the end of the night would be an indication
of the day length.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM
Flowering in SDP
Short day plants flower when the night period is
long.
In day light or red light, phytochrome red (Pr) is
converted to phytochrome far red (Pfr). The
conversion actually only requires a brief
exposure to white or red light.
In the dark, Pfr is slowly converted back to Pr.
A long night means that there is a long time for
the conversion. Under short day conditions (long
night) at the end of the night period the
concentration of Pfr is low.
In SDP, low Pfr concentration is the trigger for
flowering.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Flowering in LDP
Long day plants flower when the night period
is short.
In day light (white or red) the Pr is converted to
Pfr.
During periods when the day light period is
long but critically the dark
period is short, Pfr does not have long to
breakdown in the dark. There is a higher
concentration of Pfr.
In LDP, high Pfr concentration is the trigger for
flowering.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Dark period (length of night is called as Nycto

period) more important in photoperiodism
reaction because interruption during night will
inhibit flowering in SDP but promote
flowering in LDP.
Dark interrupted by short exposure of light
results in flowering in long day plants. But if
light period is interrupted by dark exposure
has no effect on flowering.
In short day plants, Pr promotes flowering
when Pfr suppresses it, when it is vice versa in
long day plants.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Importance of photoperiodism
Annuals can be grown twice or thrice in a year.
Prevention of winter dormancy and autumn leaf fall.
Increased stolon formation through long days in Strawberry.
Plants like radish, carrot etc. can be made to remain vegetative for longer period.
Yield can be increased.
Photoperiod manipulation is one of the effective techniques to produce offseason
flowers and to do flower forcing in case of photosensitive crops like long day
plants and short-day plants.
Photoperiodism is a physiological process, which is correlated with the day
length of the particular season and responsible for the developmental activities in
the plants.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

 Photoperiodic flowering in plants is regulated by photoreceptors including the red/far-

red light-receptor phytochromes and the blue light-receptor cryptochrome.
 Photoperiod regulation is also used intensively in potted ornamental plants like
poinsettia, petunia etc. to reduce the plant height and shape of the plants to maintain
the consumer appeal.
 The photoperiodism can be defined as "response of plants to different duration and
timing of the light and dark periods with respect to the flowering process".
 Light quantity and the intensity will not affect much, but light duration is the
important factor in lengthening the light period (Poesch, 1931).
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM
Interconversion of phytochrome red and
far-red during day and night
Light is absorbed by plant photoreceptors including
phytochromes, cryptochromes and phytotropins
(Muneer et al., 2014).
Phytochrome is a blue green pigment which absorbs
R (red) and FR (far-red) light, responsible for
correlation of the plants and light. (Hughes, 2013).

Light converts phytochromes into photo-reversible forms under in vivo condition: Pr

(Phytochrome red) absorbing R (red) light, with an absorption peak at 650–670 nm and P fr
(Phytochrome far-red) absorbing FR (far-red), with an absorption peak at 705–740 nm.
Pr absorbs red (r) light and is converted to its active form Pfr; on the contrary, Pfr absorbs far
red (fr) light and is converted to its inactive form Pr.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM
Photoperiod requirement of some ornamentals and flowers
Plants Critical day length(hrs)
Short day plants
Chrysanthemum 10
Poinsettia 10
Celosia 10
Cosmos 11
Ipomoea lobata 9
African marigold 11
Long day plants
Rudbeckia 13
Pansy 14
Petunia 13
Carnation 13
Dahlia 12
*Short day plants will initiate flowers when the day lengths are shorter than their critical
day length.
* Long day plants will initiate flowers when the day lengths are longer than their critical
day length
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Photoperiod regulation techniques to create short day (Artificial

Short day):
SD can be artificially created in a greenhouse by the use of opaque material (Black
cloth/blackout).
Under natural long day, black cloth can be pulled at a specified time in the afternoon
to cut short natural daylength.
Automatic curtain system can also be installed.
There can be retracted in the morning, to expose plants to light when desired.
Synthetic fabrics with reflective outer surfaces are desirable because they reflect light
and simultaneously minimise heat build-up.
Otherwise heat build-up as in case of black cloth can delay flowering which is
referred to as heat delay as reported in Poinsettia and Chrysanthemum.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Photoperiod regulation techniques to create long day (Artificial

Long day):

During natural short-day conditions, long days can be created by three different
methods;
1. By giving supplemental lighting immediately after the sunset, known as
day-extension
DE lighting is the practice of delivering light to extend the length of the natural day.
For example, if the natural day length is 9 hours and we desire a 14-hour photoperiod,
we would operate the lights beginning at sunset for about 5 ½ hours.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

2.By providing artificial lighting during the midnight, known as night-

interruption.
NI lighting is the practice of providing low-intensity light to plants during the
middle of the night.
NI lighting is typically delivered during the middle of night (such as from 10 p.m.
to 2 a.m.), because plants are most sensitive to light at this time.
Cyclic (intermittent) lighting is an alternative lighting strategy that can reduce
energy costs.
Cyclic lighting involves using periodic lighting in the middle of the night, such as
light on for 5 minutes every 20 minutes during a 4-hour period.

3. Providing lighting from 2 am until sunrise, also called as pre- dawn

lighting.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Research outcome of flower crop regulation

Crop Research outcome Reference

Carnation Extended photoperiod of >14hrs results in White, 1960.
rapid growth and bud initiation.
Carnation (var. white Extended photoperiod results in earlier flower Harris and Ashford,
sim) initiation. 1966.
Fuchsia hybrida. EOD*-treatments with red light reduced Vince-Prue, 1977
internode length
Rudbeckia fulgida For vegetative growth it requires ≤13hrs and Runkle et al., 1999.
‘Goldsturm’ for flowering it requires ≥14hrs of
photoperiod.
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Poinsettia Filters reducing FR* are almost as affective Clifford et al., 2004.
as two treatments with CCC* in controlling
the height.
Miltoniopsis orchids When plants are exposed to short days for 4 Lopez and
weeks will flower >90%. Runkle,2006.
Oncidium B, R and FR LEDs results in maximum Chung et al., 2010.
morphological and biochemical
development.
Paphiopedilum B LED light results in compact plant with Lee et al., 2011.
more flowers.
Calibrachoa, Strong reduction in shoot elongation by Schussler and
Scaevola and providing 6 or 8 hrs of short photoperiod. Bergstrand, 2012.
Petunia
 Chrysanthemum NI with R light inhibited the flowering Yohei et al., 2012.
effectively.
Chrysanthemum, Flowering was delayed by 4hrs of NI* with Craig and Runkle,
Dahlia and Tagetes LED. 2013.
erecta.
Poinsettia EOD-R treatment, inhibits stem extension Islam et al.,2014.
effectively.
Antirrhinum majus, Photoperiod with intermediate PPE* has Craig and Runkle,
Fuchsia×hybrida, been proved to be more effective to 2016.
Petunia×hybrida, promote flowering in some LD* species.
Rudbeckia hirta
FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING, Dr YSRHU-COH, VENKATARAMNNNAGUDEM

Petunia Light sources with low R:FR (red: far- Park et al., 2016.
red) ratios promote flowering and stem
elongation.
Tulip W: R: Blight treatments results in high Amiri et al., 2018.
yield, compared to dark conditions.
Chrysanthemum LEDs are best lighting sources for open Thao et al., 2018.
field cultivation compared to CFL*
bulbs.
Irisin, NI* with 14 hours of photoperiod (R: Walters et al., 2019.
Alternanthera, W:FR) is effective in inhibiting the
Strobilanthus, flowering.

N*- Night interruption, EOD*-End of day treatment, LD*-Long day, SD*-Short day, FR*- Far-red, R*-red,
W*-White, B*-blue, CCC*- Cycocel, PPE*-photosynthetic photo efficacy, CFL*- Compact fluorescent
light.