Sensors in Robotics.

Objective
• Understand the physical principles of
sensing and the significant sensors used
in robotics.

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Alshamasin
 Topics

• Classification of sensors
• Position sensors
• Force & torque sensors
• Optical sensors
• Ultrasonic sensors
• Speech systems

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 Sensors in Robotics
• Measurement of robot and environment
parameters is fundamental to the
successful application of robots.
• Most industrial robots are severely
restricted by their lack of sensing
capabilities.
• Increasing the sensory capabilities of
robots will increase productivity and saving
time.
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 Usages of Sensors
• Measuring robot parameters for control loops;
• Finding the location of objects;
• Correcting for errors in the robot’s model of itself and of
the world;
• Detecting and avoiding failure situations;
• Detecting and avoiding collisions;
• Monitoring interaction with the environment;
• Monitoring the environment for changes that may affect
the task;
• inspecting the results of processes.

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 Sensor
• Element of a measuring system that is
directly affected by a phenomenon
(temperature, pressure, velocity,…etc.),
body, or substance carrying a quantity to
be measured

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 Computer Interfaces
• The signal proportional to the sensed
value is read into a computer through
computer interface for further processing.
• The type of interface depends upon the
characteristics of the signal.

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 Sensing Process

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 Sensor Fusion
• The third level of the sensing process is the
analysis of sensed data to produce a model of the
world of the robot.
• Combining signals from several sensors to
form a world model is known as sensor fusion.

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 Fusing data from multiple sensors into a robust consist model
has difficulties:
• The sensors measure different features of the environment;
• The sensors are often located in different physical locations
(before their data can be fused, it has to be transformed to a single
reference frame);
• The sensors may have a different time base;
• Noise and incompleteness of sensor data.
Research into these problems focusing on two areas:
1. The design of a range of sensors with the same resolution, time
base, field of view (‫)مجال الرؤية‬, and depth of field;
2. The development of transforms which map each sensor into a
similar field of view, and then a specific time instants combine the
images.

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 Desirable features of sensors
• Accuracy, Precision, Operating range,
Speed of response, Calibration, Reliability,
Cost, Ease of operation.

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 Classification of Sensors
in Robotics
• Sensors in Robotics are used for both
internal feedback control (Internal Sensors
– measuring the parameters internal to the
robot) and external interaction with the
outside environment (External Sensors –
perceiving the environment external to the
robot).

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 Types of Sensors in Robotics
• Position Sensors: Potentiometers, Encoders, LVDT,
Resolvers
• Velocity Sensors: Encoders, Tachometers, Differentiation
of position signal
• Acceleration Sensors
• Force & Pressure Sensors: Piezoelectric, Force-sensing
resistor, Strain gauges
• Torque sensors

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• Touch & Tactile Sensors: Microswitches, Touch
sensors, Force sensors ( force-sensing and Wrist Tactile
array sensors)
• Proximity Sensors
• Optical & Ultrasonic Sensors
• Range Finders
• Sniff (( ‫شم‬Sensors
• Voice-recognition Devices & Synthesizers (‫)المازجات‬
• Vision Systems

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 1.Position sensors
• Position sensors are used to measure displacements,
both angular and linear, as well as movements. In many
cases, such as in encoders, the position information may
also be used to calculate velocities . Potentiometers are
generally used as internal feedback sensors in order to
report the position of joints and links. Potentiometers are
used both alone as well as together with other sensors
such as encoders. In this case, the encoder reports the
current position of joints and links, whereas the
potentiometer reports the startup positions.

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 Potentiometers

• A potentiometer converts position information into a

variable voltage through a resistor.
The device consists of a movable tap along two fixed
ends. As the tap is moved, the resistance changes.
• The resistance between the two ends is fixed, but the
resistance between the movable part and either end
varies as the part is moved.
• In robotics, potentiometers are commonly used to sense
and tune position for sliding and rotating mechanisms.

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 Potentiometers
• As the sliding contact (wiper) slides on the resistor due to a
change in position, the proportion of the resistance before or
after the point of contact with the wiper compared to the total
resistance varies (Figure). The resistive external load RL is in
parallel with R2, and both are in series with R1. Since in this
capacity, the potentiometer acts as a voltage divider, the
output will be proportional to the resistance as:

Assuming that RL is large, the quantity R1R2 can be

ignored, and the equation simplifies to:

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 Shaft Encoders
• An encoder is a simple device that can output a digital signal for
each small portion of a movement.
• Shaft encoders measure the angular rotation of an axle providing
position and/or velocity information.
• To detect a complete or partial rotation, we have to mark the turning
element.
 This is usually done by attaching a round disk to the shaft, and
cutting notches into it.
 A light emitter and detector are placed on each side of the disk, so
that as the notch passes between them, the light passes, and is
detected; where there is no notch in the disk, no light passes.
• Usually, many notches are cut into the disk, and the light hits
impacting the detector are counted.

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• An alternative to cutting notches in the disk is to paint the disk with
black and white wedges, and measure the reflectance. In this case,
the emitter and the detector are on the same side of the disk.
• In either case, the output of the sensor is going to be a wave
function of the light intensity. This can then be processes to produce
the speed, by counting the peaks of the waves.
• Shaft encoding measures both position and rotational velocity , by
subtracting the difference in the position readings after each time
interval. We can combine the position and velocity information to do
more sophisticated things:
 move in a straight line
 rotate by an exact amount
Note, however, that doing such things is quite difficult, because wheels
tend to slip (noise and error) and slide and there is usually some
slop ( ‫)تباطوء‬and backlash in the gearing mechanism.
• Shaft encoders can provide feedback to correct the errors, but
having some error is unavoidable.

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 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• LVDT is a transformer whose core moving along with the distance

being measured.
• LVDT output is a variable analog voltage as a result of the
displacement.
• The output is linear and proportional to the input position of the core.

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 Resolvers
• Resolvers are similar to LVDTs but used to measure an angular
motion.
• Resolvers are reliable, robust, and accurate.
• Resolver includes
 one primary coil connected to a rotating shaft and carries an
alternating current through slip rings,
 two secondary coils placed 90 apart from each other.
• The output of a resolver is equal to the sine and cosine of the
rotation angle.

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 2. Velocity Sensors
Encoders: If an encoder is used for displacement measurement, there is
in fact no need to use a velocity sensor. Since encoders send a known
number of signals for any given angular displacement, by counting the
number of signals received in a given length of time dt velocity can be
calculated. A typical number for dt may be 10 ms. However, if the
encoder shaft rotates slowly, the number of signals received may be too
small for an accurate calculation of velocity. On the other hand, if the
time is increased in order to increase the total number of signals per
cycle, the rate at which velocity is updated and sent to the controller
will decrease. This will diminish the accuracy and effectiveness of the
controller. In some systems, the cycle time dt is varied depending on
the angular velocity of the encoder shaft. A smaller number is used if it
rotates fast, increasing the effectiveness of the controller, and a larger
number is used otherwise to gather enough data.

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 Tachometers
A tachometer is in fact a generator that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Its output is an analog voltage proportional to the input
angular speed. It may be used along with potentiometers to estimate velocity.
Tachometers are generally inaccurate at very low speeds.

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 3.Acceleration Sensors
Accelerometers are very common sensors for measuring accelerations. However,
in general, accelerometers are not used with industrial robots. Recently,
acceleration measurements have been used for high precision control of linear
actuators and for joint feedback control of robots.

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 4. Force and Pressure Sensors
Piezoelectric sensors:
• Piezoelectric material compresses if exposed to a voltage and
produces a voltage if compressed.
• A piece of piezoelectric can be used to measure pressures or
forces in robotics. This was used in devices such as the
phonograph to create a voltage from the variable pressure
caused by the grooves in the record.

• The analog output voltage must be conditioned and amplified

for use.

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 Strain Gauge
A strain gauge can also be used to measure force. The output of the
strain gauge is a variable resistance, proportional to the strain, which
itself is a function of applied forces. Therefore, measuring the
resistance, we can determine the applied force. Strain gauges are
used to determine the forces at the end effector and the wrist of a
robot. Strain gauges can also be used for measuring the loads on the
joints and links of the robot, but this is not very common.

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 5.Torque Sensors
Torque can be measured by a pair of strategically placed force
sensors. Suppose that two force sensors are placed on a shaft,
opposite of each other, on opposite sides. If a torque is applied to the
shaft, it generates two opposing forces on the shaft’s body, causing
strains in opposite directions.
The two force sensors can
measure the forces, which
can be converted to a torque.
To measure torques about
different axes, three pairs of
mutually perpendicular sensors
must be used. However, since
forces can also be measured
with the same sensors,
a total of six force sensors can generally report forces and torques
about three axes, independent of each other, as depicted in Figure
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 6. Switch Sensors
• Microswitches(MS), though extremely simple, are very
useful and common in all robotic systems. They cut off the
electrical current, and therefore, can be used for safety
purposes, for determining contact, for sending signals
based on displacements, and many other uses. MS are
robust, simple, and inexpensive. Sensor categories are:
• Contact sensors: detect when the sensor has contacted
another object.
• Limit sensors: detect when a mechanism has moved to
the end of its range.
• Shaft encoder sensors: detects how many times a shaft
turns by having a switch click (open/close) every time the
shaft turns.
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 7. Visible Light and Infrared Sensors
These sensors react to the intensity of light projected onto them by
changing their electrical resistance. If the intensity of light is zero, the
resistance is at maximum. As the light intensity increases, the
resistance decreases, and consequently, the current increases.
These sensors are inexpensive and very useful. They can be used for
making optical encoders and other devices as well. They are also used
in tactile sensors.

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 • A phototransistor can also be used as a light sensor, where in the
presence of a certain intensity of light, it will turn on; otherwise, it
will be off. Phototransistors are usually used in conjunction with an
LED light source.
• A light sensor array can be used with a moving light source to
measure displacements as well. This has been used to measure
deflections and small movements in robots and other machinery.
Light sensors are sensitive to the visible light range. Infrared sensors
are sensitive to infrared range. Since infrared is invisible to human
eyes, it can be used to measure a large distance for navigation
purposes. Also, infrared remote control devices can be used to
establish remote control communication links between devices and
robots.

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 Infra Red Sensors

• Infra red sensors are a type of light sensors, which function in the
infra red part of the frequency spectrum.
• IR sensors are active sensors: they consist of an emitter and a
receiver.
• IR sensors are used in the same ways that visible light sensors: as
break-beams and as reflectance sensors.
• IR is preferable to visible light in robotics applications because it
suffers a bit less from ambient interference, because it can be easily
modulated, and simply because it is not visible.

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 8. Touch and Tactile Sensors
Touch sensors are devices that send a signal when physical contact has
been made. The simplest form of a touch sensor is a microswitch, which
either turns on or off as contact is made. The microswitch can be set up
for different sensitivities and ranges of motion. A tactile sensor is a
collection of touch sensors which, in addition to determining contact,
can also provide additional information about the object. This additional
information may be about the shape, size, or type of material. In most
cases, a number of touch sensors are arranged in an array or matrix form,
as shown in Figure

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 9. Proximity Sensors

• Magnetic proximity sensors

• Inductive proximity sensors
• Capacitive proximity sensors
• Eddy current proximity sensors
• Proximity range sensors
• Optical sensors

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 Magnetic Proximity Sensors
These sensors are activated when they are close to a magnet. They can be
used for measuring rotor speeds (and the number of rotations) and
turning a circuit on or off. Magnetic proximity sensors may also be used
to count the number of rotations of wheels and motors, and therefore, be
used as position sensors.
A magnetic proximity sensor can be used to track wheel rotations by
mounting a magnet on the wheel (or its shaft) and having the sensor
stationary on the chassis. Similarly, the sensor can be used for other
applications, including safety. For example,many devices have amagnetic
proximity sensor that sends a signal when the door is open to stop the
rotating or moving parts.

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 Eddy Current Proximity Sensors
• Eddy current sensors are used to detect the
presence of conductive material, as well as
nondestructive (‫) غير مدمر‬testing of voids and cracks,
thickness of materials, etc.
• An eddy current sensor typically has two coils,
where one coil generates a changing magnetic flux
as reference.
• The change in the total flux is proportional to the
proximity of the conducting material and is
measured by the second coil.

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 Inductive Proximity Sensors
Inductive proximity sensors are used to detect metal surfaces. The
sensor is a coil with a ferrite core, an oscillator/detector, and a
solid state switch. In the presence of a metal object in the close
vicinity of the sensor, the amplitude of the oscillation diminishes.
The detector senses the change and turns the solid state switch off.
When the part leaves the range of the sensor, it turns on again .

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 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
The capacitive sensor reacts to the presence of any object that has a
dielectric constant more than 1.2. In that case, when within range, the
material’s capacitance raises the total capacitance of the circuit. This
triggers an internal oscillator to turn on the output unit which will send
out an output signal. Consequently, the sensor can detect the presence
of an object within a range. Capacitive sensors can detect nonmetal
materials such as wood, liquids, and chemicals.

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 10. Range finders
Unlike proximity sensors, range finders are used to find larger
distances, to detect obstacles, and to map the surfaces of objects. Range
finders are meant to provide advance information to the system. Range
finders are generally based on light—visible light, infrared light, or
laser—and ultrasonic. Two common methods of measurement are
triangulation and time-of-flight or lapsed time. Triangulation involves
illuminating the object by a single ray of light that forms a spot on the
object. The spot is seen by a receiver such as a camera or photodetector.
The range or depth is calculated from the triangle formed between the
receiver, the light source, and the spot on the object, as shown in Figure

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 Substituting and manipulating the equation will yield:

Since L and b are known, if a is measured, d can be calculated.

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 Time of flight or lapsed time ranging consists of sending a signal
from a transmitter that bounces back from an object and is
received by a receiver. The distance between the object and the
sensor is half the distance traveled by the signal, which can be
calculated by measuring the time of flight of the signal and by
knowing its speed of travel. This time measurement must be very
fast to be accurate. For small distance measurements, the
wavelength of the signal must be very small.

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 Proximity Range Sensors
• Range sensors: Active sensors and
Passive sensors
• Optical sensors:
 Visible light sensors
 Infrared sensors
 Laser sensors

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 Optical Sensors
• Optical sensors consists of an emitter and a detector.
• Depending of the arrangement of emitter and detector relative to
each other, we can get two types of sensors:
 Reflective sensors (the emitter and the detector are next to each
other, separated by a barrier; objects are detected when the light is
reflected off them and back into the detector)
 Break-beam sensors (the emitter and the detector face each other;
objects are detected if they interrupt the beam of light between the
emitter and the detector)
• The emitter is usually made out of a light-emitting diode (an LED),
and the detector is usually a photodiode/phototransistor in
Reflective optical sensors.
• A light bulb in combination with a photocell can make a break-beam
sensor.

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 Ultrasonic Sensors
• Ultrasonic sensors measure the distance or presence of
target objects by sending a pulsed ultrasound wave at
the object and then measuring the time for the sound
echo to return.
• Knowing the speed of sound, the sensor can determine
the distance of the object.
• Current ultrasonic devices have a frequency range of 20
KHz to above 2 MHz.

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 Advantages of Ultrasonic Range Finders
• Ultrasonic systems are rugged, simple, inexpensive, and low
powered. They are readily used in cameras for focusing, in alarm
systems for motion detection, and in robots for navigation and range
measurement.
• Ultrasonics can be used for distance measurement, mapping, and
flaw (‫ )العيوب‬detection.

Ambient Light Levels: Unaffected by ambient light levels

• Optical Characteristics of Target: Unaffected by the transparency,
reflectivity, opacity(‫ )ظلمة‬or color of the target object
• Surface Characteristics: Target surface texture‫( ) ملمس‬is generally
not a problem.

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 Disadvantage of ultrasound sensing
• Their disadvantage is in their limited resolution which is due to
the wavelength of the sound and natural variations of
temperature and velocity in the medium, and in their
maximum range which is limited by the absorption of the
ultrasound energy in the medium. Typical ultrasonic devices
have a frequency range of 20 kHz to above 2 MHz .
• The accuracy of the measurement depends on the
wavelength of the signal and the accuracy of the time
measurement and the speed of sound.
• The speed of sound in a medium is dependent on the
frequency of the wave (at above 2 MHz level) and the density
and temperature of the medium.

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 Light-Based Range Finders
• Light (including infrared and laser)-based range finders measure the
distance from an object by three different methods: direct time
delay measurement, indirect amplitude modulation, and
triangulation.
• The direct time delay measurement method measures the time
required for a collimated (‫)موازي‬beam of light (usually laser, since it
does not divert) to travel to an object and back, similar to an
ultrasonic sensor.
• In one indirect method, the time delay is measured by modulating a
long burst of light with a low-frequency sinusoidal wave (Time-to-
Amplitude Converter, TAC) and measuring the phase difference
between the modulations between the emitted light and the
backscattered (‫ )المرتد‬light.
• Triangulation (‫)التثليث‬is the common technique used in range finding
using light beams. For shorter distances encountered in navigation,
triangulation yields the most accurate and best resolution among the
three different techniques.
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 Global Positioning System (GPS)
This positioning system is based on a radio-navigation system for
civilian use, freely available to anyone. With a GPS receiver, we
can determine a global position and time that can be used for
navigation and mapping. The system includes 29 satellites orbiting
the Earth, a control and monitoring station on Earth, and the GPS
receivers. The receiver uses the transmitted data from the satellites
to calculate its position. This information can be sent directly to the
control system of a mobile robot for positioning purposes and
navigation.

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 11. Sniff Sensors
• Sniff sensors are sensitive to particular
gases and send a signal when they detect
those gases.
• They are used for safety (‫ )السالمة‬purposes
as well as for search and detection
purposes.

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 12.Voice Recognition Devices
• Voice recognition involves determining what is said and taking
an action based on the perceived information.
• Voice recognition systems generally work on the frequency
content of the spoken words.
• Any signal may be decomposed into a series of sines &
cosines of different frequencies at different amplitudes, which
will reconstruct the original signal if combined .
• It is assumed that every word (letter), when decomposed into
the constituent frequencies, will have a unique signature
composed of its major frequencies, which allow the system to
recognize the word.

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 • The user must train the system by speaking
the words a priori to allow the system to
create a look up table of the major
frequencies of the spoken words.
• When a word is spoken and its frequencies
determined, the result is compared with the
look up table.
• If a close match is found, the word is
recognized.

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 13.Voice Synthesizers (‫) المؤلفات الصوتية‬
Voice synthesis is accomplished in two different ways:
• One is to recreate each word by combining phonemes and
vowels.
 this can be accomplished with commercially available
phonemes chip and a corresponding program.
 Although this type of system can reproduce any word, it
sounds unnatural and machine like.
• The alternative is to record the words that the system may
need to synthesize and to access them from memory or tape
as needed.
• Although this system sounds very natural, it is limited (‫) محدود‬.
• As long as all the words that the machine needs to say are
known a priori, this system can be used.

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 14.Vision Systems
• Vision Systems are the most sophisticated sensors used
in robotics.
• Vision sensors relate the function of a robot to its
environment.
• Due to their importance and complexity, they need to be
studied separately.

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