FM Unit2

Fluid Mechanics
Unit 2- Fluid Statics
Prof. C. M. Sewatkar
Department of Mechanical Engineering,

College of Engineering, Pune
Fluid Statics
Fluid Pressure or pressure intensity, p  dF / dA pF/A
Force always acts in the direction
normal to the wall
 SI unit – N/m2 or Pascal
Variation of Pressure in a Fluid
Z  p  p  x   y z p

x 2 
 δz

 p  x 
 p   y z
 x 2 
w δx δy δz
X δy
Y
δx
For equilibrium F X 0 F Z 0 F Z 0
C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

Fluid Pressure and Its Measurement
p p
F X 0
x
0 F Y 0 y
0
p
F Z 0
z
 w
dp
 w   g
dz
Y
Thus the pressure intensity varies only in the vertical direction in the
static mass of fluid and it increases with the depth of the fluid

Pressure at a point in a liquid
We know dp   w p   wz  C
Free liquid surface
dz
For free surface pressure h
is atmospheric, pa
H
z = (H+zo)
Hence C = [pa +w(H+zo) z = (H+zo-h)
zo
p   wz  [ pa  w( H  zo )]
For point in liquid z  ( H  zo  h ) Thus, p  pa  wh
If atmospheric pressure is considered as datum p  wh
p  w1h1  w2 h2 S1h1  S 2 h2
Pressure head
The vertical height of the free surface above any point in a liquid
at rest is known as pressure head. Thus,
p
h
w
It is a convenient to express the pressure in terms of vertical
height of the liquid since the pressure depends on only vertical
height
Thus pressure can be expressed in meters of liquid column
The equation p = wh can be used to obtain the relationship

between heights of columns of different liquids for same pressure
p  w1h1  w2 h2 wS1h1  wS 2 h2 S1h1  S 2 h2

Where, w is the specific weight of water and S1 and S2 are
the specific gravities of two different fluids
Pascal’s Law
 Pressure at a point in a fluid acts with same magnitude in all the
directions
α ps s y
px y z δs
δz
δy
δx
1 pz x y
w  x y z
2

Pascal’s Law
 Resolving the forces along X and Z direction and equating with zero
gives:
px y z  ps y s sin   0 0
1
pz x y  ps y s cos   w  x y z  0
2
 s sin    z and  s cos    x
Thus, p x  ps  0
p z  ps  0
Hence
ps  p x  p z
Which means pressure acts equally in all directions as S direction is
arbitrarily chosen. This is known as Pascal’s law
Atmospheric, absolute, gage and vacuum
pressure
Atmospheric air exerts normal pressure up on all the
surfaces with which it is in contact and it is known as
atmospheric pressure (Varies with altitude, measured by
barometer and hence called barometric pressure)
At sea level – 10.1043  104 N/m2 or 1.01043 bar or 10.3 m

of water or 76 cm of Hg.
Absolute zero or local atmospheric pressure can be the

base for measurement
If measured with reference to atm pressure it is called

gage pressure (Negative gage pressure is vacuum)
If measured with respect to absolute zero it is called

absolute pressure C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune
Atmospheric, absolute, gage and vacuum
pressure
Gage
pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Vacuum pressure
or
Negative gage pressure Absolute
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure
Absolute
pressure
Absolute zero pressure or datum

Pressure Measurement
Manometers Mechanical gauges
Simple Manometers Differential Manometers
 Piezometers  Two piezometer manometer

 U-tube manometers  Inverted U-tube manometers
 Single column  U-Tube manometers
manometers  Micro manometers
 Inclined single column
manometers

Piezometers –simplest manometers
hm
hm
Can measure only moderate

pressures
Location of insertion makes no h
difference
Can not be used for gases (no
free surfaces are formed) Negative pressure
measurement
U-Tube manometers
Manometric fluid  A glass U-tube with heavier
(Sp. Gr. S2) manometric fluid is used
Procedure to write manometric

expression
y
 Start from A or free surface and
Fluid of sp. write pressure there in appropriate
Gr. S1 unit (N/m2 or m of H2O)
z  Add the change in pressure
caused due to change from one
A level to adjacent level.
 Use +ve if the adjacent level is
lower.
 Use –ve sign if it is higher.
 Continue till other end and equate
with pressure at that point
U-Tube manometers
PA S
 Manometric expression in terms of liquid at A zy 2 0
wS1 S1
Where w is the specific weight of water
PA
 Manometric expression in terms of water  zS1  yS 2  0
w
PA
If A contains gas S1 = 0  yS 2  0
w

Single column manometers
S1 One of the limbs of U-tube
manometer is replaced by a
h2 reservoir of large cross
section
B
y When not connected yS1  h1S 2
h1
0 0
When connected Ay  ah2
∆y
A = area of tank
a = area of limb
S2
The manometric expression starting from free end:
PA
0  (h2  h1  y ) S2  (y  y ) S1 
0 w
PA  a PA
 h2 ( S 2  ( S 2  S1 )   h2 S 2
w  A w
Inclined single column manometers
h2
B
y
∆y
0 h1 0
∆y yS1  h1 sin  S 2
θ
Ay  ah2
PA
0  (h2  h1 ) sin  S2  (y ) S2  yS1  yS1 
w
PA  a PA
 h2 ( S 2 sin   ( S 2  S1 )   (h2 sin  ) S 2
w  A w
Differential manometers
Used for measuring the difference of pressure between any two points in a
pipeline or in two pipes or a containers
Usually consists of a glass U-tube two ends of which are connected to two
gage points
Common types of differential manometers
 Two piezometer manometer

 Inverted U-tube manometers
 U-Tube manometers
 Micro manometers

Two-Piezometer Differential Manometer
PA PB
 h
w w
A B

Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer
Air cock Manometric expression
Air
PA PB
C C  yS1  ( y  h) S1 
w w
h
D
PA PB
y   hS1
w w
S1
A B
With air as manometric fluid

Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer
Air cock Manometric expression
… ……
……..…
…
… …
…
…
…… S2 PA PB
…
C …
…
. . …
…
…  yS1  hS 2  ( y  h) S1 
.…
.. …
… C w w
…
…
.. …
.…
h … …
…
.…
D
PA PB
y   h( S1  S 2 )
w w
S1
A B
With lighter fluid as manometric fluid

U-Tube Differential Manometer
A B
Manometric expression
y
Sp. Gr. = S1
PA PB
 ( y  x) S1  xS 2  yS1 
w w
D
C PA PB
C   x( S 2  S1 )
w w
Sp. Gr. = S2

U-Tube Differential Manometer with two points
at different levels
Sp. Gr. = S3
A
z B
y
Sp. Gr. = S1
PA PB
 ( z  y  x) S1  xS 2  yS3 
w w
x
C
PA PB
   x( S 2  S1 )  y ( S3  S1 )  zS1 
w w
Sp. Gr. = S2

Micromanometer
Sp. Gr. = S3
A B Used for measurement of
very small difference in
pressure with precision
y1
∆y Two manometric fluids
C C’ and two basins with large
cross sectional area
∆y
Manometric y2
liquid 1  When not connected
Sp Gr. S2 x/2 fluids stands at C-C’ and
D x D’ D-D’
x/2 Volume displacement in
E E’ basin and limb is same
Manometric
 x
liquid 1 A(y )  a  
Sp Gr. S1 2
Micromanometer
PA  x
 ( y1  y ) S3   y2  y   S 2
w  2
 x  PB
 xS1   y2   y  S 2  ( y1  y ) S3 
 2  w
a x
y   
A 2
PA PB a x a x x
   y1S3  S 3  y2 S 2  S2  S2
w w A2 A2 2
x a x a x
 xS1  y2 S2  S 2  S2  y1S3  S3
2 A2 A2

Micromanometer
PA PB
a<<A   x  S1  S 2 
w w
 Invented by Chattock Small and Krell
 These are very sensitive to pressure differences

down to less than 0.0025 mm of water
 Disadvantage – appreciable time is required for

taking the reading and hence are used for
completely steady pressures

What is the absolute pressure at a point
10 m below the free surface in a fluid that
has a variable density in kilogram per
cubic meters given by ρ= 450+ah, in
which a = 12 kg/m4 and h is the distance
in meters measured from the free surface?
Determine the pressure at points
A,B,C and D in Pascal’s
D
Air
90 cm
B
air
30 cm
C
30 cm
A
90 cm
water water
Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces
Important definitions
Total pressure – The force exerted by fluid on the surface

which is immersed in the static mass of fluid is called total
pressure. It is always exerted in the direction normal to the
surface.
Vertical surface SI Unit - N
Centre of Pressure – Point of application of total pressure

Total Pressure on the horizontal
surface
Free surface
P Horizontal plane
h
of area A
P  pA  ( wh) A  wAh
The centre of pressure is the centroid of the surface

Total Pressure on the Vertical Surface
O O
b
x
x dx h
CG
CP
 The pressure intensity is not constant on the surface since depth

varies (Thus, P  p  A )
For horizontal strip of thickness ‘dx’ and width ‘b’
dA  b  dx
Total pressure on the strip dP  wxdA  wxbdx

Total Pressure on the Vertical Surface
Total pressure on entire plane P   dP  w x(bdx)

 The term  x(bdx) is the sum of first moment of areas of the
strips about axis OO (through free surface)
 It is also given by the product of total area of the surface (A)

and the distance of CG from the free surface (OO)
Thus
 x(bdx)  Ax
P  wx A
Hence the total pressure is equal to the product of
pressure intensity at centroid and area of the
surface
Centre of Pressure for a Vertical Surface
 Since the pressure intensity varies with depth total pressure is not
exerted through CG
 Moment of total pressure on the strip with OO
dP  x  wx(bdx ) x  wx (bdx ) 2
 Sum of moment of total pressure with OO

Vertical surface
 dP  x  w x (bdx)
2
 Moment of resultant of the system is equal to sum of the

moments of components about the same axis
Ph  w x (bdx)
2

Centre of Pressure for a Vertical Surface
 The term  x 2 (bdx) is the sum of the second moment of areas of

the strips about axis OO (through free surface)
 It is also given moment of inertia about OO
Thus I O   x 2 (bdx)
wI O wI O
Ph  wI O h 
P wAx
2
We know I O  I G  Ax Parallel axis theorem
IG
Thus h x hx
Ax
Total Pressure on an Inclined Surface
θ O
x
h x
dA
CG y
CP yp O
Total pressure on the strip dP  wxdA  w( y sin  )dA

Thus P   ydA  w sin 

Total Pressure on an Inclined Surface
 ydA First moment of area given by Ay
P  wA( y sin  )
P  wxA
Hence the total pressure is equal to the product of
pressure intensity at centroid and area of the
surface which is also true for vertical surface

Centre of Pressure for a Inclined Surface
Let, h = vertical depth of CP
yp = distance of CP from OO along normal to free surface
We know dP  w( y sin  )dA
dP  y  w sin  y dA 2
Moment of total pressure with OO  Py p
Py p  w sin   y 2 dA
 dA  IO
2
y
w sin  I O w sin  I O
yp  
P wAx

Centre of Pressure for a Inclined Surface
h x
I O  I G  Ay
2
yp  y
sin  sin 
I G sin 2 
h x
Ax
IG
For θ = 90° h x Similar to vertical plane
Ax

Centre of Pressure for a Curved Surface
E F
PV Direction of total
pressure on the area
of surface varies
D A
dPV P   pdA
PH dP
dPH θ
B dA
The total pressure dP acting on dA can be resolved as
dPH  dP sin   pdA sin 

dPV  dP cos   pdA cos 
PH   dPH  w hdA sin 
PV   dPV  w hdA cos 
 dA sin  represents vertical projection of dA
 ( wh)dA sin  represents total pressure on vertical trace of dA
 Thus component of total pressure in horizontal direction is total

pressure on its vertically projected area CD

Similarly
 dA cos  represents horizontal projection of dA
 ( wh)dA cos  represents total pressure on horizontal trace of dA
 Thus component total pressure in the vertical direction is total

pressure on its horizontally projected area
PV   whdA cos  represents the weight of the liquid above ABCDEFA
 PV 
Thus, P P P 2
H V
2
and   tan  
1
 PH 

Practical applications - Dams
Total Pressure per unit length of dam,

H
P  wAx  w( H  1)
2
2/3(H) CentrewHof2 Pressure
P I
H h  x  2G
Ax
1
 1 H 3
H/3 H
h   12
2 ( H 1)  H / 2
2
h H
3
Practical applications - Gates
Total Pressure per unit length of dam,

P1  wAx1  wA( H1  h / 2)
P2  wAx 2  wA( H 2  h / 2)
Resultant force experienced
H1 by the gate
H2
P1
h P  P1  P2
P2

Buoyancy and Floatation
Important definitions
Buoyancy – Tendency of the partially or fully immersed body to be
lifted up in the fluid is known as buoyancy.
Buoyant Force – The force tending to lift the body upward is

known as buoyant force
Center of Buoyancy – The point of application of the buoyant force

is known as center of buoyancy.
Archimedes’ Principle – When a body is fully or partially immersed

in the fluid it is buoyed up by a force which is equal to the weight of
fluid displaced by the body.

Buoyant Force on Fully Submerged Body
p1dA
h1 Specific weight = w
M B
Resultant horizontal
FB force on the body = 0
A
h2 B
C
y  Buoyant force on the
strip of elemental area
dA
dA
dFB  ( p2 dA  p1dA)
N
D =w(h2  h1 )dA
p2dA  wydA
= wdV
FB   dFB   wdV  wV
Buoyant Force on Partially Submerged Body
h1 P1dA Specific weight = w1

M
y1
h2
dA
y2 Specific weight = w2
dFB  ( p2 dA  p1dA)
N =  w1 (h1  y1 )  w2 y2  ( w1h1 )  dA
P2dA
 ( w1 y1  w2 y2 )dA
= w1dV1  w2 dV2
FB  ( w1V1  w2V2 ) C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune
Buoyant Force on Body Floating in Air
The weight of the air displaced by the body can be neglected as

specific weight of air is negligible
G
Specific weight = w
FB
B
FB  wV  W W is the weight of liquid displaced

Metacentre and Metacentric Height
M
G G
W
B B B1
FB = W θ
FB = W
Metacentre is defined as the point of intersection between the axis of the
floating body passing through points B and G and a vertical line passing
through the new centre of buoyancy B1.
For small θ the position of M is practically same.
 The distance between the centre of gravity G and the metacentre M of a

floating body (i. e. GM) as θ→0, is known as metacentric height

Stability of Submerged and Floating Bodies
Stability of submerged or floating body

- Tendency of the body to return to the original upright
position after it has been slightly displaced.
When a submerged or floating body is given a slight angular

displacement it may have either of the following three conditions
of equilibrium
Stable equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium

Stability of Submerged and Floating Bodies
A body is said to be in a state of stable equilibrium if small angular

displacement sets up a couple which oppose the angular
displacement and brings back the body to its original position.
A body is said to be in a state of unstable equilibrium if small

angular displacement sets up a couple which tends to further
increase the angular displacement and thereby not allowing the
body to its original position.
A body is said to be in a state of neutral equilibrium if small

angular displacement does not set up a couple of any kind and
therefore the body adopts a new position given to it by angular
displacement.

Stability of Fully Submerged Body
FB=W
FB=W
B
B
G
G
W
W
Balloon floating in a air

Stability of Fully Submerged Body
FB=W FB=W
B B
G
G
W
W
Submarine floating in sea

Condition for stable equilibrium
The fully submerged body is in stable equilibrium if centre of gravity

is below centre of buoyancy

Stability of Partially Submerged Body
Overturning
couple
G G
W
B B B1
FB = W FB = W
GM sin 
BM  BG
Restoring couple W  GM sin 
Floating body in a stable equilibrium

Stability of Partially Submerged Body
Overturning couple
G
G
W M
B B1
GM sin 
FB = W B W
θ FB = W
Overturning couple W  GM sin 

BM  BG
Floating body in a unstable equilibrium
Importance of Stability of Floating Objects
 Boats, ships etc are the important objects which are

subjected to external forces
 Wind forces, wave forces, pressure due to tidal or river
currents, pressure due to maneuvering a boat or ship
in a curved path
 Shifting of cargo may cause heeling
 Movements of passengers also develops overturning
couple
 Thus the care has to be taken in the design of boats or
ship so that metacentre is kept well above centre of
gravity
 CG can be lowered by permanently loading the ship or
boat

Determination of Metacentric Height
Experimental Method
x
M
θ
W
G G G’ w
l
B B B1
d FB=W
Plumb line
w – movable weight placed on a deck
W – Total weight including weight of deck

wx  W (GG )
'
(GG ' )  (GM ) tan  W (GM ) tan   wx
wx d
Thus (GM )  tan  
W tan  l
wx l
(GM )  
W d
Theoretical Method dx
dA
L
Sectional plan at
x M water surface
A
A C D θ D’
A’
W O θ
G G D
θx
B B B1
FB=W
In the tilted position the portion AOA’ has emerged out
The portion DOD’ has moved down in the liquid
Assume that there is no vertical movement
Volume corresponding to AOA’ and DOD’ is equal
The moment of buoyant force is FB  BM  

Volume of each prism = L xdx
Weight of the liquid in each prism = wL xdx
Moment of pair of the forces due to
emrging and going down of wedges = 2 x  wL xdx

FB  BM    2w  x 2 Ldx  w 2  x 2 dA dA  Ldx
2  x 2 dA Moment of inertia I of the cross sectional area of

ship at water surface about its longitudinal axis
wI wI I V is volume of liquid
Thus BM   
FB wV V displaced by ship
I
GM  BM  BG   BG If metacentre M lies above CG, G
V
I
GM  BG  BM  BG  If metacentre M lies below CG, G
V
Thus,
I 
GM     BG 
V 
I
 BG Stable equilibrium
V
I
 BG Unstable equilibrium
V

Problem
2.1 A cylindrical buoy, diameter 1.5 m and 1.1 m high weighing 4.450 kN is
floating in sea water with its axis vertical. Find the maximum permissible
height above the top of the buoy, of the centre of gravity of a 450 N load which
is placed centrally on top of the buoy. (Specific gravity of the seat water is
1.025)
Solution Load
Weight of the sea water displaced
450 N = (4450+450) = 4900 N
Buoy
x G’ Volume of sea water displaced is

1.1 m G
4.450 kN 4900
x
V  0.487 m 3
0.55 m B
0.267 m
1.025  9810
0.138 m
1.5 m
0487
Depth of immersion   0.276 m
( / 4) 1.5 2
Height of Centre of Buoyancy above the base
0.276
  0.138 m
2 C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune
Problem
The position of combined centre of gravity of buoy and the load may be
obtained by taking moments total weight (acting at G’) about the base of the
buoy and equating it with the sum of moments of weight of buoy and weight
of load about base of the buoy
1.1
Thus, 4900  x  4450   450  x
2
x  (0.499  0.092 x)
The diagram suggests BG '  OG '  OB

 x  0.138
 (0.499  0.092 x)  0.138
 (0.361  0.092 x)
Problem
I 
We know BM  I (1.5) 4 m 4 ; V  0.487 m 3
V 64
(1.5) 4
BM    0.510 m
64 0.487
For stable equilibrium of the floating buoy
BM  BG ' 0.510  (0.361  0.092 x) 0.092 x  0.149
Thus, x  1.62 m
Thus the CG of the load must not be more than (1.62-1.1) = 0.51 m
above the top of the buoy - answer

FM Unit2

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Fluid Mechanics

Unit 2- Fluid Statics

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Variation of Pressure in a Fluid

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

For point in liquid z  ( H  zo  h ) Thus, p  pa  wh

If atmospheric pressure is considered as datum p  wh

Thus pressure can be expressed in meters of liquid column

The equation p = wh can be used to obtain the relationship

p  w1h1  w2 h2 wS1h1  wS 2 h2 S1h1  S 2 h2

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

At sea level – 10.1043  104 N/m2 or 1.01043 bar or 10.3 m

Absolute zero or local atmospheric pressure can be the

If measured with reference to atm pressure it is called

If measured with respect to absolute zero it is called

Absolute zero pressure or datum

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

Simple Manometers Differential Manometers

 Piezometers  Two piezometer manometer

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

Can measure only moderate

Procedure to write manometric

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

Common types of differential manometers

 Two piezometer manometer

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

With air as manometric fluid

With lighter fluid as manometric fluid

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

 Invented by Chattock Small and Krell

 These are very sensitive to pressure differences

 Disadvantage – appreciable time is required for

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

Total pressure – The force exerted by fluid on the surface

Centre of Pressure – Point of application of total pressure

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

The centre of pressure is the centroid of the surface

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

 The pressure intensity is not constant on the surface since depth

Total pressure on the strip dP  wxdA  wxbdx

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

Total pressure on entire plane P   dP  w x(bdx)

 It is also given by the product of total area of the surface (A)

 Moment of total pressure on the strip with OO

 Sum of moment of total pressure with OO

 Moment of resultant of the system is equal to sum of the

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

 The term  x 2 (bdx) is the sum of the second moment of areas of

 It is also given moment of inertia about OO

Total pressure on the strip dP  wxdA  w( y sin  )dA

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

 ydA First moment of area given by Ay

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

yp = distance of CP from OO along normal to free surface

We know dP  w( y sin  )dA

Moment of total pressure with OO  Py p

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., COE, Pune