Lecturer: Dr.

HF Duan

Additional Reading Materials for Lectures 04 & 05

(for Fluid Mechanics: CSE10252 & CSE20202)

Fluid statics
Fluid statics is the part of fluid mechanics which describes the case when there is no
relative movement between fluid layers. In general, fluid exerts normal forces and
shear forces on any surface that is in contact with the fluid. Since shear forces are
related to velocity gradients, no shear stresses can exist in the fluid if fluid elements
are not moving relative to each other. In such a situation only normal forces (pressure
forces) exist. Therefore, fluid statics can cover the cases where either fluid is at rest or
the fluid is moving but there is no relative motion between fluid elements. Our major
concern will be the pressure and its variations throughout the fluid as well as the
forces caused by pressure on solid surfaces.

Basic equation of fluid statics

z
x

z

xyz
y

x
Consider a small element of fluid. If the element is at rest, then only surface forces
and body forces act on it. The body force (the weight of the element) is  xyz .
Let us denote the pressure at the centre of the element by p .
The force exerted on the side normal to the z axis closest to the origin is
p z
(p  )xy .
z 2
p z
The force exerted on the opposite side is ( p  )xy .
z 2
p p
Why?  p( x, y, z )  p( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )  ( x0 , y0 , z 0 )( x  x0 )  ( x0 , y0 , z 0 )( y  y 0 )
x y
p
 ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )( z  z 0 )  H .O.T .
z
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Summing the forces acting on the element in the z direction gives

p z p z p
Fz  ( p  )xy  ( p  )xy  xyz   xyz  xyz
z 2 z 2 z

The elemental force vector F is given by
     p  p  p  
F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k   i  j  k xyz  xyzk
 x y z 
Since V  xyz , we obtain

F  p  p  p  
lim   i  j  k   k
V 0 V  x y z 

The expression on the right-hand side of the above equation is the resultant force per
unit volume at a point.
Note also that
p  p  p 
p  i j  k (this vector is called the gradient of p )
x y z
The fluid static law of variation of pressure is

 p  k  0 , where   g .

In component form, the above formula can be written as follows

p p p
 0,  0,   g
x y z
These formulas have important consequences. Because the partial derivatives with
respect to x and y are equal to zero, any two points at the same elevation in the same
fluid element at rest have the same pressure. Therefore, the pressure varies only with
z.
dp
  g  Integrate  p   gz  C
dz
where C is the constant of integration.
Assume that p( z1 )  p1 , p( z 2 )  p2 . Then
p1   gz1  C and p2   gz 2  C
It follows from the above equations that p1  p2  g ( z 2  z1 ) or
p1  p2  gz
where z is referred to as the pressure head and has the dimension of length.
Another form of this equation is
p  gz  const
for all points in a static fluid.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Three conditions for equilibrium of any fluid

1. The pressure must be the same over any horizontal plane.

2. The density must be the same over any horizontal plane.
dp
3.   g
dz

The difference in pressure between two points in the fluid is only a function of the
vertical distance between them.

Absolute and gage pressure

p  gz  const
One can determine the value of the constant in the equation
if the value of p is specified at some point. Suppose that the liquid surface is a
horizontal plane z  0 . Moreover, assume that the pressure p a is atmospheric at the
surface. Then for a point at a depth h below the surface we have h   z and
therefore
p  pa  gh
This formula shows that the pressure increases linearly with depth. It also can be seen
from the formula that the pressure at a point, p , is equal to the sum of atmospheric
pressure, p a , and the pressure gh due to the weight of the fluid. Note that one can
choose the reference level to measure pressure in many ways. For example, the
pressure in a vacuum is called absolute zero, and the difference between the pressure
value and absolute zero is called absolute pressure. Since atmospheric pressure
affects all surfaces, it is often convenient to regard atmospheric pressure as zero of the
pressure scale. The difference between the pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure is called gauge pressure.
In other words, the gauge pressure at any point in a liquid in equilibrium is equal
gh , where h is the depth of the fluid vertically below the plane free surface.

Examples:
Example 1. To what head of carbon tetrachloride (relative density 1.59) is a pressure
of 200 kPa equivalent?
Solution.
p 200  10 3
p  gh  h    12.84m
g 1.59  10 3  9.8

Example 2. Calculate the capillary rise of water in contact with air (surface tension
0.073 N/m) in a clean glass tube 5 mm in diameter. Assume that the meniscus has a
radius of curvature equal to the tube radius.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Solution.
pi
zb
h p0
za

d  2r

The fluid surface is in equilibrium so that pb  gzb  pa  gz a

Assume that z a  0, pa  0 . Then pb   gz b

On the other hand, from the section on surface tension we know that
2
pi  p o  . The internal pressure ( pi ) in this case is the atmospheric pressure
r
( pa  0) while the external pressure ( po ) is po  pb . Combining the above equations,
2 2 2
we obtain pb      gz b  z b 
r r gr
2  0.073
Hence, z b   5.96mm
0.0025  10 3  9.8

Pressure variation in a compressible fluid

dp
Equation   g expresses the conditions for equilibrium for any fluid. For a
dz
compressible fluid   const (the density varies with the pressure). This means that
the above equation, in general, cannot be integrated in closed form. There is one
important particular case where it is possible.
Suppose that the fluid is a perfect gas at rest at constant temperature. Then we have
p p0 p 0
p  RT , p0   0 RT    
 0 p0
dp dp p dp 
Also,   g   0 g    0 gdz  Integrate from
dz dz p0 p p0
p  p0 till p  p
p
dp
z
0 0 0
p p z p0 gdz  ln p  ln p0   p0 gz  p0 gz 0
 
0 0

p z  z0   z  z 0 
 ln   p  p0 exp   
p0 p0 / g   p 0 /  0 g 
The last formula represents variation of pressure with elevation in an isothermal gas.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

It is often assumed that the temperature in the atmosphere varies linearly with height:
T  T0  z
where   0.006510 K / m up to the stratosphere.
Then for a perfect gas we have
p p
 
RT R(T0  z )
dp dp dz g
Then   g   g  ln p  ln(T0  z )  ln C
dz p R(T0  z ) R
p
 ln  ln(T0  z ) g / R The constant C can be found from the fact that at z  0
C
p  p0 . Finally, we obtain
g / R
p  T0  z 
 
p0  T0 

Example 1. The pressure in the air space above oil (relative density 0.75) in a tank is
115 kPa. Find the pressure 2 m below the surface of the oil.

Solution.
pa  115kPa

p  pa  gh  115  103  103  0.75  2  116.5kPa

Example 2. To what head of air ( R  287 J / kg  K ) at an absolute pressure of 101.3

kPa and temperature of 150C is a pressure of 75 mm of water equivalent?

Solution. We know: p0  101.3kPa , R  287 J / kg  K , T0  273  15  2880 K .

p
Using the relation  0  0 , we obtain the air density
RT0
101.3  1000
0   1.226kg / m 3
287  288
The pressure p w due to 75 mm of water is p w   w ghw
 w hw 1000  0.075
Since  0 gh0   w ghw , we have h0    61.2m
0 1.226

The measurement of pressure

In practice we are usually interested in measuring a pressure difference. Recall that if
a pressure is expressed as a difference between its value in the fluid and an absolute
zero, then the result is called an absolute pressure. The difference between the
pressure of the fluid and the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere is known as
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

gauge pressure. If the pressure of the fluid is below the pressure of the surrounding
atmosphere it is called vacuum (or negative suction).

Pressure
A

Absolute pA Gauge pA

Gauge 0

Vacuum pB Local atmospheric

B pressure
Absolute pB
Absolute 0
Fixed datum

It is seen from the figure that

Absolute pressure at A = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure at A

Absolute pressure at B = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum at B

Most of the properties of gases are functions of their absolute pressure.
The properties of liquids are little affected by pressure. It is more convenient then to
express pressures in liquids by specifying a gauge value.
We now consider some of the means of measuring pressure.

The barometer
A mercury barometer consists of a glass tube closed at one end. The tube is filled with
air-free mercury and inverted so that the open end is located in mercury. There are
two reasons why mercury is employed: first, its density is sufficiently high for a
relatively short column to be obtained, and second, mercury has a very small vapor
pressure at normal temperatures.
pvapor  0

h B

Mercury

Since p( A)  p( B), we have pa  gh

Note that the diameter of the tube must be large enough for the effect of the surface
tension to be negligible.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Manometers

Manometers are devices in which columns of a liquid are used to determine

differences in pressure. The basic idea is very simple – the change in pressure with
elevation is used to determine pressure. Consider a simple manometer (called a
piezometer) shown in figure below.

A

The gauge pressure at A is just p  gh .

However, it is clear that it would be difficult to measure high pressures (why?). It will
also be impractical for negative gauge pressures (why?)
For measurements of small negative or positive gauge pressures in a liquid the tube
can take the form

h
B
A

Since the pressure at the meniscus is zero gauge and since pressure decreases with
elevation we have p A  gh  0  p A   gh
The key idea of the method is the following: for a fluid in an equilibrium the pressure
is the same for any two points that have the same elevation (that is, for any two pints
that lie on a horizontal plane).
Consider another example.

h2
h1
A B

For greater negative or positive gauge pressures a second liquid is used.

Let us look at the horizontal line marked B. The pressures at B must be the same at
both parts of the tube. Hence, we have p A  1 gh1   2 gh2
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Example. Calculate the gauge reading. Assume that the relative density of mercury is
13.6.

Air

A 200
mm

3m
B
Mercury
Water

Solution. Let us introduce two elevations, namely, h1  0.2m and hw  3m

Then we have p A  1 gh1  0 and p B  p A   w ghw 
p B   1 gh1   w ghw  13.6  103  9.81  0.2  103  9.81  3  2746.8Pa

Generic examples

Example 1. Find p A

1

pA
h1
h2
B

p2
p1 2

The pressure must be the same along line B, that is, p1  p2

On the other hand, p1  p A  1 gh1 and p2  0   2 gh2
Therefore, p A  1 gh1   2 gh2 and p A   2 gh2  1 gh1
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Example 2. Find p A  p B

pB
3
pA
1
h3

h1
h2

p1 p2

2
p1  p2  p1  p A  1 gh1 ,
p2  p B   3 gh3   2 gh2
Hence, p A  1 gh1  p B   3 gh3   2 gh2
and p A  p B   3 gh3   2 gh2  1 gh1

Numerical example. (Problem 2.28) Find the pressure at A in the figure below. What
is the pressure of the air in the tube?

Air

A S=0.9
F

30 cm

E
60 cm
C
D
50 cm

Water
B

S=2.94

At F the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, so that p F  0 . Also,

p E  p D  1000  9.81  0.3  2943Pa Since the air in the tube and the water are in
equilibrium, pair  p D  2943Pa Similarly, p D  pC . The pressure at B is
p B  pC  1000  2.94  9.81  0.5  17363.7 Pa Finally, p A  1000  0.9  9.81  0.6  p B
The pressure at A is p A  17363.7  1000  0.9  9.81  0.6  12066.3Pa
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Forces on submerged surfaces

In many engineering problems one needs to calculate the magnitude, direction and
location of the resultant force on a submerge surface. This is essential in the design of
dams, hulls of ships, gates.
In order to calculate the forces we use the principle of moments. The following
discussion is presented in order to remind the basic principles to the reader.

1. First moments

It is known that the first moment of a force about any axis perpendicular to the plane
is given by the product of the magnitude of the force and its perpendicular distance
from the axis. This statement is known as the Principle of Moments.

F A


B

M  F l l
 n   n 
Similarly, if R   Fi , then Rl   li Fi
i 1 i 1
The same principle may be applied to other physical quantities such as area, volume
and mass.
Suppose that A is a plane area and let A be an infinitesimal element of A .

x
 A C A


y
y

x
x
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Using the Principle of Moments we obtain that the first moment of the elemental area
A about the y -axis is xA . The first moment of the entire area A about the y -axis
is  xdA . Note that x may be positive or negative, therefore, the integral may also be
A
positive or negative. Consider now the moment about another axis, say, x  k , which
is parallel to the x axis. Then the moment becomes  ( x  k )dA   xdA  kA
A A
1
The last moment is zero if k is chosen as follows k   xdA
AA
This value of k will be denoted as x in sequel and the axis x  x is called a centroidal
axis.
1
Therefore, x   xdA
AA
Similarly, moments may be taken about the x axis, and another centroidal axis can be
defined as follows
1
y   ydA
AA
The intersection C of these two centroidal axes is known as the centroid of the area.
It can be shown that the first moment of the area is zero about any axis through the
centroid.
The position of the centroid of a volume may be determined similarly:
1
x   xdV
VV
The first moment of mass of a body about yz plane may be calculated as follows
1
M M
xm  xdm

where dm is an element mass and M is the total mass of the body.

We can take weight instead of mass, but for engineering purposes the result will be
approximately the same. Hence, the centre of gravity is given by
1 1 1
xc 
MM  xdm , y c 
MM  ydm , z c 
M M
zdm

Let us assume that the density is uniform, that is, dm  dA  dxdy , M  A ,
1
(negligible thickness), then xc   xdA The same formula is obtained earlier for
AA
x.

2. Second moments.

The second moment of a physical quantity about a specified axis or plane is equal to
the sum of the products of the elemental quantities and the squares of their distances
from the axis or plane. For example, the second moment of the plane area about the
y axis is I y   x 2 dA . Similarly, the second moment of the area about the x axis is
A

I x   y dA . The moments I x and I y are called the moments of inertia of the area and
2

A
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

are always positive. Note that standard formulae exist for x c , y c , I x , I y for plane
areas of different shapes (circle, triangle, …)

Forces on submerged plane surfaces

1. Submerged horizontal plane surfaces

F

Centroid of surface Centre of pressure

We know that the pressure of a fluid results in forces that are distributed over the area.
One of the major tasks is to determine the resultant of these forces, its magnitude,
direction and position. For the case of a horizontal plane surface all forces are
perpendicular to the plane. The resultant force, of course, is also perpendicular to the
plane. The point at which the line of action of the resultant force meets the plane is
called the centre of pressure. If the surface area is A and the magnitude of the
pressure is p , then the magnitude of the resultant force applied to a horizontal plane
surface is F  pA . Note that in this particular case the centre of pressure coincides
with the centroid of the surface.

2. Submerged inclined plane surfaces

F p  gh1
h1
h2
Centroid of pressure
prism

p  gh2 Centroid of pressure of A

We know that for constant density fluids pressure varies linearly with depth. The
shaded area is known as pressure prism.
 
The magnitude of F is the volume of the pressure prism, the force F is perpendicular
to A and is applied at the centre of pressure.

3. Submerged plane surfaces of arbitrary shape

 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

F 

h
h
F
y

x
A
C( x, y)

P( x ' , y ' )

y
View normal to
plane

A force is exerted on every element of the area due to the pressure of the liquid. The
gauge pressure at any element A is p  gh , so the force is
F  pA  ghA  gy sin A
Since there are no shear stresses (the liquid is not moving), the force F is
perpendicular to the surface as well as all other elemental forces due to the pressure.
The total force on the plane area A is
F   gy sin dA  g sin   ydA
A A

Note that  ydA is the first moment of the area about the x axis and can be written in
A

the form  ydA  Ay , where

A
y is the y coordinate of the centroid C ( x , y ) .

Hence, the total force exerted on the plane is

F  g sin Ay  gAh
This formula has very simple meaning: the total force F is equal to the product of the
area and the pressure at the centroid.

Centre of pressure for a plane surface

We know the magnitude of the resultant force but we also need to know its line of
action. Note that all the elemental forces are perpendicular to the plane, so the
resultant force is also perpendicular to the plane. The point at which the line of action
of the resultant force meets the plane is known as the centre of pressure.

Since the resultant force is equivalent to all other forces acting on the plane surface,
its moment about any axis must be equal to the sum of the moments of all forces
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

about the same axis. Let us calculate the moment of the resultant force F about the
x axis. An elemental force acting on a surface area A is
F  gy sin A
The moment of this force about the x axis is gy 2 sin A .
Suppose that the centre of pressure is located at ( x p , y p ).
Then the total moment of the force F about the x axis is
Fy p   gy sin dA
A
On the other hand, the resultant force F is
F  gy sin A
Eliminating F from the last two equations, we obtain
A y dA
2

yp 
Ay
The x coordinate of the centre of pressure is determined by taking moments about the
y axis. Then the moment of the force F is gy sin xA and the moment of the force
F about the y axis is
Fx p   gxy sin dA
A
so that
 xydA
xp  A

Ay
The major conclusions from the formulas for x p and y p are the following:
1. The position of the centre of pressure is independent of the angle  and of the
density  (if   const ).
2. The resultant force acts at the centre of pressure
3. The magnitude of the resultant force is equal to the product of the area and the
pressure at the centroid.

Let us show that the centre of pressure is always lower than the centroid. In order to
do this, we use the parallel axes theorem.
Consider an axis through the centroid of the area and parallel to the x axis.
The second moment of the area about this axis is
I c   ( y  y ) 2 dA   y 2 dA  2 y  ydA  y 2  dA
A A A A

 I x  2 yAy  Ay  I x  Ay
2 2

Hence, I x  I c  Ay 2
Using the formula for y p , we obtain
Ix I  Ay 2 I
yp   c  c y
Ay Ay Ay
Since I c  0 we have y p  y .
The following conclusion can be drawn from the relationship between y p and y : the
greater is the value of y (that is, the more deeply the surface is submerged), the
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Ic
smaller is the value of the term and, therefore, the closer is the centre of pressure
Ay
to the centroid of the area. Hence, one can take the centre of pressure to be
approximately at the same point as the centroid of the area in regions where the
variations of pressure are negligible. This is true if the depth is large and the area is
small.
If a surface has a complex shape, in many cases it can be divided into a number of
simpler shapes. Calculating the forces acting on each shape and applying the
Principles of Moments one can find the resultant force.

The following table can be useful for the practical solution of problems

Properties of areas

b Area Location of
centroid I
h bh yc  h / 2 bh 3 / 12

yc

h
bh / 2 yc  h / 3 bh 3 / 36
yc

D D 2 / 4 yc  D / 2 D 4 / 64
yc

xc  3b / 8
h
2bh / 3 2bh 3 / 7
yc
yc  3b / 5

xc
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Parabola

r
4r
yc D 2 / 8 yc  D 4 / 128
3

Example. Suppose that the dam shown on the figure below is concrete (relative
density 2.4). The pressure distribution over the base of concrete is linear. Determine
whether or not the dam shown will topple over.

10m
3m

3m

Dam
H  30m
h  5m

p  gh

p  gH
Consider free body diagramme

33m

W 
Fp3

F p1

10m

Fp 2

  Tan 1 (10 / 33)  0.294rad

 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

The forces are due to the concrete, the water, the hydrostatic uplift and the reaction of
the ground on the dam (not shown in the diagramme). We consider a 1m section of
the dam (in the direction perpendicular to the plane where the figure is shown).

Let us calculate the magnitudes of these forces first.

W  (33  3  33  10 / 2)  2.4  1000  9.81  6.216  10 6 N

Fp1  ghc A  1000  9.81  15  30  4.415  10 6 N
Fp 2  pavr  A  1000  9.81  (30  5) / 2  13  2.232  10 6 N
Fp3  ghc A  1000  9.81  5 / 2  5 / cos(0.294)  0.128  10 6 N

Consider now the locations of the forces.

1. Weight force

W xW
W2
W1

x1

x2

Using the Principle of Moments, we obtain

xW W  x1W1  x2W2 ,
where x1  2 / 3  10  20 / 3m,
x2  10  3 / 2  23 / 2m,
W1  (33  10) / 2  2.4  1000  9.81  3.885  10 6 N / m,
W2  33  3  2.4  1000  9.81  2.331  10 6 N / m
20 / 3  3.885  10 6  23 / 2  2.331  10 6
Hence, xW   8.48m
6.216  10 6

2. Pressure forces.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

F p1
Fp 2 Fp 2 A

z p1
x p2 A

x p2B

Fp 2 B x p2

z p1  30 / 3  10m,
In order to find x p 2 , we use the Principle of Moments:
x p 2 Fp 2  x p 2 A Fp 2 A  x p 2 B Fp 2 B
x p 2 A  13 / 2m , x p 2 B  2 / 3  13  26 / 3m,
Fp 2 A  1000  9.81  5  13  0.638  10 6 N / m,
Fp 2 B  25  1000  9.81 / 2  13  1.594  10 6 N / m,
13 / 2  0.638  10 6  26 / 3  1.594  10 6
Hence, x p 2   8.05m
2.232  10 6
Let us find the location of the force F p 3 . Two methods can be used.

Fp3

lp

l p3

Method 1. It is known that the centre of pressure is located at the centroid of the
pressure prism: l p3  5 / cos(0.294) / 3  1.74m

Ic
Method 2. We know that l p  l c  , lc  5 / cos(0.294) / 2  2.61m,
lc A
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

1  5.22 3
l p  2.61   2.61  0.87  3.48m
12  2.61  5.22
Hence, l p3  5.22  3.48  1.74m

W xW

F p1
Fp3
z p1

l p3

x p2 D
Fp 2

If the dam topples, it will rotate about point D. Consider the sum of the moments
about point D:
 M  xW W  l p3 Fp3  x p 2 Fp 2  z p1 Fp1  8.48  6.216 106  1.74  0.128 10 6
 8.05  2.232  10 6  10  4.415  10 6  9.183  10 6 N / m
The dam will rotate towards the right of the diagramme and will therefore topple over.

Example. Calculate the magnitude, direction and location of the total force exerted on
one side of the plate below:

A B 0.6m C 0.3m
C1
C2
1
1.8m Water
0.4m

1.2m D 2 0.764m
1.2m

Centroids
Region 1: the distance from AB to C1 is 1.8  1 / 3  0.6m , the distance from C1 to BD
is 1.2  1 / 3  0.4m .
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

4r 4  1.8
Region 2: the distance from C2 to BC is   0.764m , similarly, the
3 3  3.14
4r 4  1.8
distance from C2 to BD is   0.764m .
3 3  3.14
bh 3
Moments of inertia: I C1  , I C 2  [ / 16  4 /(9   )]r 4
36
Magnitude: Force on 1: F1  ghc A  1000  9.81  0.9  1.2  1.8 / 2  9.54kN ,
Force on 2: F2  1000  9.81  1.064    1.82 / 4  26.56kN
The resulting force F  F1  F2  9.54  26.56  36.1kN
Direction: Normal to the plate
Vertical location:
I C1 1.2  1.83 1
Region 1: l p1  lC1     0.2m
l C1 A 36 0.9  1.8  1.2 / 2
I  4  1
Region 2: l p 2  lC 2  C 2      1.8 
4
 0.213m
lC 2 A  16 9  1.064    1.8 2 / 4
Taking moments about line AC we obtain
9.54  0.8  26.56  (0.213  0.764)  36.1  (l p  0.3), so that l p  1.23m
Note. l p is the distance from the surface to the centre of pressure.
Horizontal location:
Region 1
A B

0.4m
0.8m C1

c.p.

1m x p1

The centre of pressure of a triangle is on the median line. From similarity of triangles
0.4 x p1
we obtain   x p1  0.333m
1.2 1.0
Region 2.

B C h

dy

x p2

x
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Dividing the quadrant into horizontal strips of height dy , the moment about BD of
x
the force on any one of them is dM  gh xdy
2
It is seen from the figure that h  0.3  y , x 2  y 2 3.24
1.8
Therefore M   1000  9.81  ( y  0.3)(3.24  y 2 )dy  18.59kNm
0

18.59
and x p 2   0.7m
26.56
For the composite body we take moment about BD:
0.7  26.56  0.33  9.53  36.1x p so that x p  0.428m . Thus, x p  0.428m and
y p  1.23m .

Forces on submerged curved surfaces

Consider a curved surface S . Since the forces on individual elements of the surface,
in general, are different, we cannot just add the magnitudes of these forces. The
summation should be done in vector form. Usually one needs to determine the
resultant forces in horizontal and vertical directions.
As an example, let us determine the force of the curved gate on the stop, shown in
figure below.

Water Stop

Curved surface

Hinge

Free body diagramme

F2

P
W
z
F1

Fx
x
Fz
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Here Fx and Fz denote the horizontal and vertical components of the force acting on
the hinge, F1 and F2 are the resultant forces of the pressure distribution and the body
force W is due to the weight of water.
The force P acting on the stop can be determined from the Principle of Moments. In
order to determine P one should add moments about the axis passing through the
hinge.

Example. Calculate the force P necessary to hold the 4-m wide gate in the position
shown. Neglect the weight of the gate.

2m P

Water

Hinge

Let us draw a free body diagram of the gate and the water directly below the gate.

P
Fz

dW W
F1
Fx
d1
F2
d2

In order to find P we need to know F1 , F2 , W , d 1 , d 2 and d W .

The magnitudes of the forces are:
F1  ghc A  1000  9.81  1  8  78480 N
Note that we are looking at the projections of the areas, therefore A in the above
formula is the area of the projection, that is, A  2  4  8 .
Similarly, F2  1000  9.81  2  8  156960 N and
W  gV  1000  9.81  4  (4   )  33700 N
The distance d W is the distance to the centroid of the volume of water below the gate.
We have
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Area A1 Area A2

Area A1-A2
=
-

dW x1
x2
Using the Principle of Moments for areas we obtain
x A  x2 A2 1  4  4  2   /(3 )
dW ( A1  A2 )  x1 A1  x2 A2  dW  1 1   1.553m
A1  A2 4 
The distance d 2  1m and d 1 is given by
Ic 4  2 3 / 12
d1  2  l p  2  ( z c  )  2  (1  )  0.667m
Az c 8 1
Summing moments about the hinge we obtain
2.5  P  d1 F1  d 2 F2  dW W  P  62.8kN

Buoyancy and floatation

Consider a mass of fluid in equilibrium. Suppose that an element in the fluid mass is
extracted. Since this element is in equilibrium, the forces that act on it must be
balanced. The only forces that act on the fluid element in equilibrium are the pressure
forces and the weight of the fluid element. Hence, the resultant of the pressure forces
must be equal and opposite to the weight of the fluid element.
If we replace the fluid element by an object of the same dimensions, then the resultant
pressure forces acting on the object will be the same as that acting on the fluid
element.
The resultant is the buoyancy force. The buoyant force always acts vertically upward.

Consider a body ABCD submerged in a liquid of density  . Pressure forces acting on

the surface ABC create an upward force equal to the weight of liquid vertically above
that surface. On the other hand, the downward force on the upper surface ADC equals
the weight of the liquid ADCEFA.
The difference between the two forces is the buoyant force FB :
Weight of liquid
Weight of liquid - corresponding to ADCEFA = Buoyant force
corresponding to ABCEFA
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

F E
Free surface
D

A C

In equation form
FB  gV ,
where V is the volume of liquid displaced.
The same formula applies for floating bodies.

This result is known as Archimede’s principle:

For an object partially or completely submerged in a fluid, there is a net upward force
(buoyant force) equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

It can be shown that the buoyant force from a fluid goes through the centroid of the
volume of fluid displaced by the body.
Example. (Exercise 2.7.3) Buoyant force is (a) the resultant force on a body due to
the fluid surrounding it; (b) the resultant force acting on a floating body; (c) the force
necessary to maintain equilibrium of a submerged body; (d) a nonvertical force for
nonsymmetrical bodies; (e) equal to the volume of fluid displaced.

Example. The specific weight (  g ) of an unknown object is desired. Its weight in

air is found to be 400N and in water it weights 300N.
Solution. The volume is found from a force balance: T  W  FB 
300  400  9.81 1000  V  V  0.0102m 3
W 400
The specific weight is     39200 N / m 3
V 0.0102
Example. A solid wooden sphere (  8350 N / m 3 ) of diameter 0.4 m is held in the
orifice (0.2 m diameter) by the water. Calculate the force exerted between the sphere
and the orifice plate when the depth is 0.7 m. The sphere will float away if this force
becomes zero. Is there any depth of water for which this can happen?

0.4m Water
0.7m

0.2m
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Consider free body diagramme.

l
FB

F Ws

F - force of the orifice plate on the sphere

W - weight of water the sphere must support
FB - the buoyancy force
Ws - the weight of the sphere

The central core of the sphere is not subject to a buoyancy force, because the sphere is
not completely immersed in water.
4 4
Volume of the sphere Vs  R 3    0.2 3  0.0335m 3
3 3
Let us calculate the volume of the sphere which is not under the influence of the
buoyancy force.

l
R

h  R  R 2  0.12  0.0268m
Let us denote by V1 the volume of the spherical “cup” above the cylinder. Then
1 1
V1  h 2 (3R  h)    0.0268 2 (3  0.2  0.0268)  0.000431m 3
3 3
The total volume of the part of the sphere shown in the figure above is
V  2V1  r 2 l , where r is the radius of the cylinder (0.1m)
Hence, V  2  0.000431    0.01  (0.4  2  0.0268)  0.0117m3
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

since l  2R  2h .
Thus, the volume subject to the buoyancy force is
VB  VS  V  0.0335  0.0117  0.0218m3
The buoyancy force is
FB  0.0218  9.81  1000  214 N
Let us calculate the weight of the sphere WS :
WS  0.0355  8350  280 N
The volume of water contributing to the weight W is
VW  [0.7  (2  0.2  2  0.0268)]  0.12  0.000431  0.0107m3
Thus W  9.811000  0.0107  105N
For equilibrium the sum of the forces must equal zero:
F  FB  WS  W  0  F  171N
When the water depth is l , the supporting force is
F  280  214  66 N
If the water depth decreases further, the buoyancy force also decreases. In the limit
(no water remains) FB  0 and F  280 N
The supporting force does not equal to zero and the sphere will not float away.

The stability of submerged bodies

Consider the balloon and gondola and assume that a small displacement is imposed on
the body in equilibrium.
FB
FB

Centre of buoyancy
G

Centre of gravity x

W W

(a) (b)

It is seen from the figure that an angular displacement from (a) to (b) causes the
moment Wx which tends to return the system to the original position.

In general, three cases are possible.

1. A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if the imposition of a small displacement

on the body induces forces which tend to return the body to its original position.
2. A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it will not return to its original
position and will move away from it.
3. A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if it will adopt its new position (that is,
it neither increase its displacement from the original position nor returns to it).
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

It is seen from the figure that for completely submerged bodies (as in balloon and
gondola example) if the centre of gravity is below the centre of buoyancy then the
equilibrium is stable. On the other hand, if the centre of gravity G were above the
centre of buoyancy B, the equilibrium would be unstable.

Stability of floating bodies

The question of stability for floating bodies is more complicated. The reason is that
the shape of the immersed volume changes if the body undergoes an angular
displacement about a horizontal axis. As a result the centre of buoyancy may take
different positions with respect to the centre of gravity. We shall see that stable
equilibrium can be achieved even when G is above B.

W M
W
G G

B
B 
B'
W W
The first figure (on your left) shows a floating body in its equilibrium position. One
can see that the force W (due to the weight of the body, applied at G) is equal in
magnitude to the buoyancy force (applied at B). Note that there is no moment on the
body. The second figure (on your right) shows the position of the body after it has
undergone a small angular displacement ( ) . We assume here that the location of the
centre of gravity does not change. (Is it always a justifiable assumption?) The centre
of buoyancy has changed because the amount of displaced fluid on the right-hand side
is larger than that on the left-hand side. As a result, the centre of buoyancy moves to
its new position B' . Let us denote by M the point where the line of action of the
buoyancy force intersects the axis BG . The location of M is practically constant for
small values of the angle  and is called the metacentre.
The distance between the centre of gravity (G ) and the metacentre (M ) is called the
metacentric height (hm ) .

The body is stable if the metacentric height is positive, that is, if M is above G .

The body is unstable if the metacentric height is negative, that is, if M is below G .
Such a situation should be avoided in the design of ships.

In order to determine the metacentric height let us consider the following figure.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

y
F
M
F



x
df l dV
G
dV B
W df
B'

FB
FB ' 

The new position of the centre of buoyancy is B' . The additional amount of water is
displaced on the left-hand side, therefore the point B' is to the left of B . As a result,
an upward force F is induced on the left-hand side of the body and a downward
force of equal value appears on the right-hand side. These forces form a couple
moment C . (Recall that a couple is a pair of two equal and opposite forces the lines
of action of which are parallel but do not coincide). We know from statics that any
system of forces acting on a rigid body may be replaced by a single force acting at an
arbitrary point plus a suitable couple. The total buoyant force system in our example
can be considered as the superposition of the force FB at B and the couple moment
C from the forces F . This system is statically equivalent to the single force FB ' at
B' .The distance  between the lines of action of the forces FB and FB ' can be found
by equating moments of the two systems of forces about an axis parallel to y and
C C
going through B' :  FB  C  0 , so that   
FB W
Therefore, in order to find  one needs to know C .
If follows from the figure that volume element dV  xdA (note that
  sin   tan  for small  ). The magnitude of the force df is
df  gxdA. Clearly, we have upward force to the left of y and downward force to
the right of y . The couple moment C is then
C   gx 2 dA  g  x 2 dA  gl y ,
A A

where l y   x dA is the second moment of the area A about the y -axis.

2

A
 g
The distance MB is then MB   ly
sin  W sin 
In the limit, as   0 , we obtain
g
MB  ly
W
The metacentric height hm is the distance between the centre of gravity
(G ) and the metacentre (M ) , so that (see the figure)
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

g
hm  ly  l
W

Example. A barge which crosses Victoria harbour has the form of a rectangular
parallelepiped having dimensions 10m  26.7m  3m . The barge weighs 4450kN when
loaded and has a centre of gravity 4 m from the bottom. Find the metacentric height
for a rotation about its longest centerline, and determine whether or not the brage is
stable. If the barge is rotated by 100 about this axis, what is the restoring couple?

3m W 4m d Water

26.7 m

First, we need to know the centre of buoyancy of the barge. Using the Archimedes
principle we obtain
gV  W  1000  9.8110  26.7  d  4450000  d  1.7m
The centre of buoyancy (B) is at the distance 1.7/2 m above the bottom of the barge.
Hence, the distance l between G and B is l  4  1.7 / 2  3.15m
Using the formula for the metacentric height we obtain
g 1000  9.81 26.7  10 3
hm  ly    3.15  1.753m
W 4450000 12
Since hm  0 the barge is stable.
The restoring couple C for a rotation of 100 is
10 26.7  10 3
C  gl y  1000  9.81   2   3808kN  m
360 12

Example. A cylindrical buoy 1.8 m in diameter, 1.2 m high and weighing 10 kN

floats in salt water of density 1025 kg/m3. Its centre of gravity is 0.45 m from the
bottom. If a load of 2 kN is placed on the top, find the maximum height of the centre
of gravity of this load above the bottom if the buoy is to remain in stable equilibrium.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

 Gl

z'
zl
 G' 1.2 m

x
 G
z
z/2  B Water

O 1.8 m

Solution. Let us introduce the following notations. Suppose that G is the centre of
gravity of the buoy, Gl is the centre of gravity of the load and let G ' be the combined
centre of gravity of the load and the buoy at a height z ' above the bottom. The volume
of salt water displaced is V (when the load is in position).
d 2
The buoyancy force is FB  gV  g z
4
If the system is in equilibrium, then the buoyancy force is equal to the sum of the
weights of the buoy and the load:
d 2 4(W  Wl ) 4(10  2)
W  Wl  g z  z   0.47m .
4 gd 2
1025  9.81    1.8 2
Hence, the distance from the bottom to point B is z / 2  0.235m .
We know that hm  0 on the stability boundary (in this case the metacentre
M coincides with the centre of gravity G ' so that BG '  BM ). Using the formula for
gl z d 4 / 64 1.8 2
hm we obtain BG '  BM     0.431m
gV d 2 z / 4 16  0.47
Therefore z ' is given by z'  z / 2  BG'  0.235  0.431  0.666m.
The value of z l can be found by taking moments about O:
(W  Wl ) z '0.45W
W zl  0.45W  (W  Wl ) z '  z l   1.746m
Wl

Equilibrium of moving fluids

There are some cases where the methods of hydrostatics may be used to analyze the
behavior of moving fluids. We know that shear stresses arise in a fluid if there is
relative motion between fluid layers. If the fluid is accelerated in such a way that no
layer moves relative to an adjacent layer, no shear stresses occur.
We consider two cases of interest: a uniform linear acceleration and a uniform
rotation about a vertical axis. The methods of hydrostatics still can be used in both
cases, and the fluid is said to be in relative equilibrium.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Uniform linear acceleration

Consider a small rectangular element of fluid

z
az
x

z p ax

Assume that the pressure in the centre is p . Then the mean pressure over the left-
p x
hand side of the element is p  and the mean pressure over the right-hand side
x 2
p x
is p  . If the fluid is in relative equilibrium, no shear stresses exist. Therefore,
x 2
the net force in the horizontal direction is
 p x   p x  p
 p  x 2    p  x 2  yz   x xyz  xyza x
   
where the last part on the right-hand side is obtained by means of Newton’s second
law, and a x is the component of acceleration in the x direction.
Thus,
p
  a x (1)
x
p
Similarly, the net force in the z direction is  xyz . Since the weight of the
z
element is gxyz , we obtain
p
 xyz  gxyz  xyza z and
z
p
   ( g  a z ) (2)
z
Similar equation can be derived for the component of the pressure gradient in the y -
direction, namely,
p
  a y (3)
y
In vector form equations (1)-(3) can be written in the form
 
p    (a  g )
In sequel we shall consider only equations (1) and (2), that is, the total acceleration
will be assumed in the xz plane.

Consider a surface of constant pressure in the fluid whose equation is dp  0 .

Assuming that the pressure varies only with respect to x and z , we obtain
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

p p dz p / x ax
dx  dz  0    (4)
x z dx p / z az  g
dz
It follows from the last formula that for constant acceleration is constant. Hence, a
dx
surface of constant pressure has a constant slope.
Consider, for example, the fluid tank shown in the figure below.

Original fluid surface

ax

If a liquid undergoes a uniform horizontal acceleration a x (assume a z  0 ), then

(after some time) it will adjust itself to the conditions shown by a solid line.
dz
It is seen from equation (4) that if a x  0 then  0 and planes of constant pressure
dx
are horizontal. The pressure variation in this case is described by formula (2) which
can be written in the form
dp a 
    z  1
dz  g 
It is clear from the above formula that if a z is constant, then the pressure will vary
linearly with z (as in hydrostatic case), but the magnitude of the pressure will depend
on a z .
The following three cases are possible:
1. If a z  0 then the pressure is greater than hydrostatic
2. If a z  0 then the pressure is less than hydrostatic
3. If a z   g then the pressure is constant throughout a free falling fluid.

Uniform rotation about a vertical axis

Consider a fluid situated in a rotating container. Assume that the container is rotating
with constant angular velocity. Then, after some time, the fluid moves like a solid
(that is, all fluid particles have the same angular velocity). There are no shear stresses
in the fluid, each particle moves with a speed that is inversely proportional to the
distance from the centre. For constant angular velocity  , any particle of fluid has an
acceleration ar   2 r , directed radially inward. Using the equation
 
p    (a  g ) , we obtain
p p
  2 r ,   g (*)
r z
Surfaces of constant pressure are defined by
p p dz p / r dz  2 r
dp  dr  dz  0    
r z dr p / z dr g
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

 2r 2
The solution to the last equation is z   C1
2g
The surfaces of equal pressure are paraboloids of revolution.
Let us find the solution to equation (*). Using (*), we obtain that the total differential
dp is dp   2 rdr  gdz . Assuming that the density  is constant, we obtain
 2 r 2
p  gz  C
2
where C is the constant of integration. Suppose that the value of the pressure at the
origin ( r  0, z  0 ) is p 0 . Then the solution can be written in the form
 2 r 2
p  gz  p0
2
This example shows that
1. Pressure distribution in the vertical direction is hydrostatic
2. Rotation creates a pressure difference in the horizontal plane, which accelerates
the fluid particles towards the centre.

Example. The tank in the figure below contains oil with the relative density
rd  0.88 . If the tank is 10 m long, the initial depth of oil is 2 m, and the tank
accelerates to the right at 2.45 m/s2, determine the slope of the surface and the
minimum and maximum pressures at the bottom of the tank. Assume that the tank
walls are sufficiently high so that there is no spillage.
z
 z
x

h1 2m
h2

a x  2.45m / s 2
10 m

Solution. Since the horizontal acceleration is constant, the surface (after some time)
will take the form shown by the dashed line. The equation for the surface of constant
dz ax a
pressure in this case has the form   x
dx g  az g
dz
Therefore,  tan    arctan(2.45 / 9.8)  14.04 0
dx
The difference in elevation (z ) can be found as follows z  5 tan14.04 0  1.25m.
At the front end of the tank, the pressure is due to a depth 2m  1.25m  0.75m, while
at the rear end the depth is 3.25m.
The minimum and maximum pressures are
p front  gz front  1000  9.81  0.88  0.75  6470 N / m 2 ,
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

prear  gz rear  1000  9.81  0.88  3.25  28000 N / m 2

Example. A cylindrical vessel of diameter d  100mm and height h  0.3m is

arranged to rotate about its axis, which is vertical. When at rest, water is poured in to
a depth of 225 mm. Calculate the speed of rotation (in radians per second) at which
(a) the water will spill over the edge and (b) the axial depth is zero.

Solution.
(a) When the water is just about to spill over the edge, the conditions are as shown
below.

C D
r
b

A B a

F 0.3 m
O E

0.225 m
d  0.1m

We know that the water surface forms a paraboloid of revolution COD. Using
calculus, one can show that the volume of the paraboloid of revolution, VCOD , is ½ of
1 r 2 z
the volume of the cylinder, VCDEF . Thus, VCOD  VCDEF 
2 2
Note also that the volume of the region between the cylinder and the paraboloid,
1 1
VCFOED , is VCFOED  r 2 z  r 2 (a  b) .
2 2
The surface AB in our figure represents the original water level. Since there is no
spillage, we have
1
VCFOED  V ABEF  r 2 (a  b)  r 2 a  a  b
2
Therefore, z  a  b  2b  2(0.3  0.225)  0.15m.
 2r 2
Since r and z are related by the formula z  , we have
2g
2 gz 2  9.81  0.15
   34.31rad / s
r 0.05
(b) When the axial depth is zero, conditions are as shown below
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

0.3 m

0.1 m

2 gz 2  9.81  0.3
and     48.52rad / s
r 0.05