Reproductive System

The reproductive systems in

both the male and female
consist of primary and
secondary sex organs and sex
glands.
The primary function of the
reproductive systems is to
perpetuate the species
through sexual or germ cell
fertilization and REPRODUCTION - is an essential
characteristic of living organisms, and
reproduction.
functional male and female reproductive
systems are necessary for humans to reproduce
FUNCTIONS

1. Production of gametes - Gametogenesis - is the production of gametes

GAMETES - reproductive cells that are produced in the gonads.

2. Fertilization - enables union of the oocyte by the sperm.

3. Development and nourishment of a new individual - nurtures the developing
fetus in the uterus until birth and provides nourishment (breast milk) after birth
4. Production of sex hormones - hormones produced by the reproductive system
control its development and the development of the gender-specific body form.
 MEIOSIS
• Meiosis - is a type of cell division
specialized for sexual reproduction

 During meiosis, one cell undergoes

two consecutive divisions to
produce four genetically different
daughter cells.

 daughter cells contains half as many

chromosomes as the parent cell
SOMATIC CELLS normally have 46
chromosomes, called the diploid number
(2n).
CHROMOSOMES exist in 23
homologous pairs
 22 autosomal pairs
 1 pair of sex chromosomes.

One chromosome of each homologous

pair is inherited from the male parent; other
chromosome of each pair is inherited from
the female parent
Most human cells contain 46 chromosomes:
22 pairs of chromosomes named autosomes.
+ 2 sex chromosomes (X,Y):
XY – in males.
XX – in females.

Upon fertilization: sex of the baby is determined

by the sperm cell.

The baby is:

 MALE if the oocyte is fertilized by a Y-
carrying sperm cell

 FEMALE if it is fertilized by an X-carrying

sperm cell.
MEIOSIS I
MEIOSIS II
Male Reproductive System
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: OVERVIEW

 consists of THE TESTIS, a series

of ducts, accessory glands, and
supporting structures.

 DUCTS - the epididymis, the

ductus deferens/vas deferens, and
the urethra.
 ACCESSORY GLANDS - the
seminal vesicles, the prostate gland,
and the bulbourethral glands.
 Supporting structures - include the
scrotum and the penis
 SCROTUM
The scrotum is a pouch of skin suspended from the perineal
area and divided into two sacs… each containing one
testicle and epididymis.
The scrotal tissue contracts in the absence of sufficient heat,
pulling the testes up closer to the body where the temperature
maintains the viability of sperm.

Dartos muscle – layer of smooth muscle

beneath the skin of the scrotum

Cremaster muscles – extensions of

abdominal muscles into the scrotum
 SCROTUM

• dartos and cremaster muscles - BOTH regulates the

temperature in the testes
• cold temperatures
 dartos muscle contracts, causing the skin of the scrotum to
become firm and wrinkled and reducing the overall size of
the scrotum.
 cremaster muscles contract, which pulls the testes closer to
the body, which increases the testes’ temperature
• warm weather or exercise
 dartos and cremaster muscles relax, skin of the scrotum -
loose and thin
 testes descend away from the body, which lowers their
temperature.
 PENIS
• PENIS
 Male organs of copulation
 Functions in transfer of sperm cells from the male to the female
 contains three columns of erectile tissue
 Corpora cavernosa – two columns of erectile tissue that form the dorsal
portion
 Corpus spongiosum – third, small erectile column that occupies the ventral
portion of the penis
 Glans penis – a formed cap
 External urethra orifice – spongy urethra that opens to the exterior
part
 Prepuce / foreskin – lose fold of skin that covers the glans penis

 Erection – process of the engorgement of the erectile tissue with

blood that causes the penis to enlarge and become firm
 PENIS
The urethra runs the length of the
penis from the bladder to the meatus.
The flaccid penis fills with blood
during arousal, causing an erection
and allowing for the function of
copulation/intercourse.
A lubricant, smegma, is thick, white,
cheesy substance that collects under the
foreskin or prepuce on the penis. This
foreskin may be circumcised/ removed
for hygiene or religious reasons. It covers
the glans/head that is filled with nerve
endings.
 TESTES
• TESTES - Also called male gonads; oval
organs within the scrotum

 Seminiferous tubules – where sperm cells

develop

 Interstitial cells / Leydig cells – endocrine

cells that secrete testosterone

 Sustentacular cells / Sertoli – are large and

nourish the germ cells; produce a number of
hormones
 TESTES
The oval-shaped testes are
located in the scrotum, and
are each divided into 250
lobules. Coiled within the
lobule are seminiferous tubes
where the sperm are formed.
The mature sperm are stored in
the epididymis, a tube 13-20 feet
in length, coiled and lying on the
side of each testicle.
 DUCTS
 Epididymis - A tightly coiled series of threadlike tubules that
form a comma-shaped structure
Maturation site of sperm cells, developing the capacity to
swim and the ability to bind to the oocyte.
 Rete testis – each seminiferous tubule empty into in tubular
networks
 Efferent ductules – carry sperm cells from the testis to the
epididymis
Ductus Deferens / Vas deferens - Emerges from the
epididymis and ascends along the posterior side of the testis
that contains smooth muscle, which contracts in peristaltic
waves to propel the sperm cells from the epididymis through
the ductus deferens.

Capacitation – final changes in sperm cells that occur after

ejaculation of semen into the vagina and prior to fertilization
 DUCTS

Spermatic cord – consists of the ductus deferens,

testicular artery and veins, lymphatic vessels, and
testicular nerve
Ampulla of the ductus deferens – ductus deferens
increases in diameter
 Seminal vesicle – sac-shaped gland
 Ejaculatory duct – formed by the ducts from
the seminal vesicle and the ampulla of the
ductus deferens
 DUCTS

• Urethra
 about 20 cm long and extends from the urinary
bladder to the distal end of the penis
 a passageway for both urine and male reproductive
fluids
• Divided into three parts:
1. Prostatic urethra – passes through the prostate
gland
2. Membranous urethra – passes through the floor
of the pelvis; surrounded by the external urinary
sphincter
3. Spongy urethra – extends the length of the penis
and opens at its end
 GLANDS: Prostate and Cowper’s

 Prostate gland – consists of glandular;

muscular tissue & empties into the urethra
 secretes alkaline fluid that nourishes and
protects sperm as part of the semen.
 Enlargement of the prostate, Benign
Prostatic Hyperplasia, obstructs the flow
of urine through the urethra.

 Bulbourethral glands / Cowper glands – a

pair of small, mucus-secreting glands that
empty into the urethra, excreted from the
glands just before ejaculation.
 SPERMATOGENESIS

• SPERMATOGENESIS - Formation
of sperm cells
 Spermatogonia – most peripheral
germ cells that divide through mitosis

 Primary spermatocytes – other

daughter cells that divide by meiosis
and become sperm cells

 Secondary spermatocytes – product

of first meiotic division
 SPERMATOGENESIS

 Spermatids – product of secondary meiotic division

 Sperm cell / Spermatozoon – developed spermatid with a
head, midpiece, and flagellum. A fertile man may produce
between 40 million and 1800 million sperm cells in total,
though the majority produce between 40 and 60 million
sperm cells per millilitre, giving an average total of 80 to
300 million sperm per ejaculation.

ACROSOME – vesicle; anterior to the

nucleus
 contains enzymes that are released
during the process of fertilization
 necessary for the sperm cell to
penetrate the oocyte, or egg cell.
The acrosome covering the head
of the sperm contains enzymes
that help it penetrate the ova.
The head carries the genetic Sperm carry either an X/female OR Y/male
material. The midpiece supplies chromosome. Since all ova carry the X/female
energy. The tail or flagellum chromosome, the male sperm does influence the
provides motility. baby’s sex.
 SECRETIONS
• Semen - is a mixture of sperm cells and secretions from
the male reproductive glands.
1. seminal vesicles produce about 60% of the fluid
2. prostate gland contributes approximately 30%
3. testes contribute 5%
4. bulbourethral glands contribute 5%.
secretions of the prostate also have several functions mucus has four primary functions: from -
Regulate pH bulbourethral glands and the mucous glands of
 prostate secretions is alkaline. the urethra
 neutralizes the acidity of the male urethra, the secretions of
the testes, the secretions of the seminal vesicles, and the 1. lubrication of the urethra
vagina 2. neutralization of the contents of the
Liquefy the coagulated semen. normally acidic urethra
 prostate gland secretions contain proteolytic enzymes that 3. providing a small amount of lubrication
break down the coagulated proteins; make the semen more during intercourse
liquid. 4. reduction of acidity in the vagina
PHYSIOLOGY OF MALE REPRODUCTION
REGULATION OF SEX HORMONE SECRETION

 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) –

produced in hypothalamus; stimulates release of LH
and FSH from the anterior pituitary
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) – stimulates interstitial
cells to produce testosterone
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – binds to
sustentacular cells and stimulates spermatogenesis
and secretion of inhibin
 Testosterone – has a negative-feedback effect on
GnRH, LH, and FSH
 Inhibin – has a negative-feedback effect on FSH
secretion
 PUBERTY IN MALES

 Puberty – sequence of events by which a child is

transformed into a young adult
 Before puberty - small amounts of testosterone
inhibit GnRH release.
 During puberty - testosterone does not
completely suppress GnRH release, resulting in
increased prod. of FSH, LH, and testosterone.
 Enlargement of the genitals; necessary for
spermatogenesis
 Testosterone is responsible for the development of
secondary sexual characteristics:
1. hair distribution and growth
2. skin texture
3. fat distribution
4. skeletal muscle growth
5. changes in the larynx
MALE SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND THE MALE SEX ACT
 Testosterone – required for normal sex drive
 Emission – movement of sperm cells, mucus, prostatic secretions, and seminal
vesicle secretions into the prostatic, membranous, spongy urethra
 Ejaculation - forceful expulsion of the secretions that have accumulated in the
urethra to the exterior.
 Orgasm / climax – result of pleasurable, intense sensation
 Resolution – penis becomes flaccid; an overall feeling of satisfaction exists
 Erection – first major component of the male sex act
Effects of Testosterone
 CLINICAL IMPACT
 Erectile dysfunction (ED) – impotence;
failure to achieve erections Infertility in
Males
 Common cause is a low sperm cell count
 INFERTILITY - is the inability or the
reduced ability to produce offspring.
 OLIGOSPERMIA – low sperm count
 AZOOSPERMIA - semen contains no sperm

Artificial insemination –
concentrating the sperm cells and
inserting them into the female’s
reproductive tract
 CLINICAL IMPACT IMPOTENCE
Impotence is a common problem
among men
characterized by the consistent
inability to sustain an erection or
the inability to achieve ejaculation,
or both.
 CLINICAL IMPACT TESTICULAR TORSION
Testicular torsion is the twisting
of the spermatic cord, which cuts
off the blood supply to the
testicle and surrounding
structures within the scrotum.
 CLINICAL IMPACT
PROSTATE CANCER TESTICULAR CANCER
Most common in men over the age of 50 Most common cancer
in males between the
Prostate cancer is one of the most
common types of cancer. Many prostate ages of 15 and 34
cancers grow slowly and are confined to
the prostate gland, where they may not  highly treatable when diagnosed early
cause serious harm. However, while Signs include…
some types of prostate cancer grow o collection of fluid in the
slowly and may need minimal or even scrotum
no treatment, other types are aggressive
and can spread quickly. o lump or enlargement in
Prostate cancer that's detected early — either testicle
when it's still confined to the prostate o unexplained fatigue
gland — has the best chance for
successful treatment.
 PERFORMING TESTICULAR SELF-
 Step 1: Draw a warm bath to relax the scrotum
EXAMS
 Step 2: Get familiar with your body
 Step 3: Place one leg on an elevated surface
 Step 4: Use one hand to support testicle
 Step 5: Use the other hand to gently roll testicle between
thumb and index finger
Look for: Hard lumps, tenderness,
hardness of testicle or discharge of
the penis
 CLINICAL IMPACT
INGUINAL HERNIA
 Inguinal hernias occur when
part of the intestine
protrudes through a weak
spot in the abdomen —
often along the inguinal
canal, which carries the
spermatic cord in men
PONDER THIS:
Female Reproductive System
EXTERNAL FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
ORGANS
 VULVA

The vulva is 5 organs making up the external

genitalia of the female:
1. Mons pubis: triangular-shaped pad of fatty
tissue over the pubis bone, covered with pubic
hair
2. Labia majora: 2 large folds of adipose tissue
on the sides of the vaginal opening
3. Labia minora: 2 smaller folds of adipose tissue on the inside of the labia majora
4. Vestibule: area between labia with openings for the vagina, urethra, and two
excretory ducts for Bartholin’s glands (provide lubricant)
5. Clitoris: sensitive fold of tissue partially covered by hood well supplied with
sensory receptors, made up of erectile tissue
 VULVA

The perineum is the area located

between the vaginal opening and
the anus. It is a muscular sheet
that can be torn during childbirth.

Perineum
Some doctors avoid
uncontrolled tearing of the
perineum by making a
surgical incision called an
episiotomy.
EPISIORRHAPHY
 INTERNAL FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
consist of the ovaries, the
ORGANS
uterine tubes (or fallopian
tubes)
uterus, the vagina, the
external genitalia, and the
mammary glands

Internal reproductive organs of the female are located within the pelvis, between the urinary bladder and the
rectum UTERUS AND THE VAGINA are in the midline, with an ovary to each side of the uterus
Internal Structures

 Vagina: tract from uterus to exterior

 Hymen: mucous membrane around vaginal opening
 Cervix: lower, narrow portion of uterus
 Uterus: pear-shaped organ containing growing fetus
 Fallopian Tubes: pathway for egg travel during ovulation
 Ovaries: egg-producing organs
 VAGINA

The vagina extends from the

cervix to the outside of the
body. It is a 3 ½ inch long
muscular tube that expands in
length and width during sexual
arousal.
The vagina is the female organ for copulation (sexual
intercourse), receiving the seminal fluid from the male
penis. It is also a passageway for menstruation or the birth
of a fetus.
 VAGINA

• VAGINA
1. female organ of copulation
2. it receives the penis during intercourse
3. It also allows menstrual flow and
childbirth

• Muscular layer – smooth muscle + elastic

fibers
 can increase in size to accommodate the
penis during intercourse, and it can stretch
greatly during childbirth
 VAGINA

• Mucous membrane – moist stratified

squamous epithelium that forms a
protective surface

 Hymen – thin mucous membrane

 Rarely, completely close the
vaginal orifice and it must be
removed to allow menstrual flow.
 More commonly, the hymen is
perforated by one or several holes.
 greatly enlarged during the first
sexual intercourse.
 UTERU
S
The uterus is a hollow,
muscular, pear-shaped organ
about the size of a woman’s
clenched fist. The top is tipped
forward in a normal
‘anteflexion’ position. It can be
divided into the body or corpus,
and the bottom cervix. The
rounded top portion, above the
fallopian tubes, is called the
fundus.
 UTERU
S

The uterus is supported and held in position by a

number of ligaments. Trauma, disease, or multiple
pregnancies can weaken these ligaments and
result in abnormal positioning.
 UTERU
The uterus wall has 3 layers: the
S
outside layer called the perimetrium, the
muscular inside layer called the
myometrium, and the mucous Outer layer
membrane lining the uterus called the (Perimetrium)
endometrium. Thick layer of muscle
• Perimetrium – outer layer; serous layer of (Myometrium)
the uterus formed from visceral peritoneum
Mucous lining
• Myometrium – middle layer; muscular layer (Endometrium)
that accounts for the bulk of the uterine wall
• Endometrium – innermost layer; consists of
simple columnar epithelial cells with an
underlying CT layer

The cervical opening is about the

diameter of a pencil.
 UTERU
S
 Fundus – superior to the entrance of
the uterine tubes
 Body – main part of the uterus
 Cervix – inferiorly, narrower part
 Uterine cavity & cervical canal –
spaces formed by the uterus

Prolapsed uterus – occurs when the uterus

extends inferiorly into the vagina
 UTERU
S
The uterus has 3 functions:
1. The endometrium sheds the
lining of the uterus every 21 to
40 days by menstruation
2. It provides a place for the
protection and nourishment of
the fetus during pregnancy
3. It contracts during labor to
expel the fetus
 UTERINE TUBE/FALLOPIAN
TUBE
The fallopian tube/oviduct is 4-6
inches long. The egg, released
from the ovary, is captured by the
fimbria and brought into the
fallopian tube. The egg is moved
along inside the tube by
muscular contractions and the
waving action of cilia. It takes an
egg about 3-4 days to travel the Implantation – process wherein the
length of the tube. If an egg is fertilized oocyte embeds itself in
fertilized, it occurs here. the uterine wall
ECTOPIC PREGNANCY -
 UTERINE TUBE/FALLOPIAN
TUBE
1. Intramural (interstitial) portion is the part of
your fallopian tube that extends into the top of
your uterus. Opening is called the ostium
2. The isthmus is the portion that connects to
uterus
3. Tube widens to form the ampulla where
fertilization usually occurs
4. End of tube is called the infundibulum
5. Fimbria are the finger-like projections around
the opening that trap the egg as it leaves the
ovary and sweep the oocyte into the uterine tube
 OVARI
ES
The two ovaries are
attached to each side of the
uterus by a ligament. They
are oval-shaped, about the
size of a large olive, and
lie close to the fimbria at
the end of the fallopian
tubes.
Each ovary is filled, already at birth, with egg-containing
sacs called follicles. Each egg is called an ovum.
 OVARI
ES
Broad ligament – spreads out on both
sides of the uterus and attaches to the
ovaries and uterine tubes
 Suspensory ligament – extends
from each ovary to the lateral
body wall
 Ovarian ligament – attaches the
ovary to the superior margin of
the uterus
 Mesovarium – folds of
peritoneum
 OVARI
ES
Once every 21 days, one follicle in
one ovary ripens. This mature follicle
is a graafian follicle. The follicle
ruptures in response to hormones from
the pituitary gland, releasing the
ovum/egg… a process called
ovulation.
After the follicle ruptures, it becomes a mass of yellow cells called the corpus
luteum. This is a temporary, progesterone-producing structure.
The progesterone prepares the body for pregnancy in the event that the
released egg is fertilised. If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks
down, the production of progesterone falls, and a new menstrual cycle begins.
OOGENESIS AND FERTILIZATION

 OOGONIA – the cells form which oocytes

develop
 Primary oocyte – oogonia that has stopped
in prophase I
 Secondary oocyte – released when the first
meiotic division is complete
 Ovulation – release of an oocyte from an
ovary
 Fertilization – when a sperm cell penetrates
the cytoplasm of a secondary oocyte
 Zygote – 23 chromosomes from the
sperm + 23 chromosomes from the female
gamete
 FOLLICLE
DEVELOPMENT
 Primordial follicle – primary oocyte
surrounded by granulosa cells (single
layer of flat cells)
 Primary follicles – oocyte enlarges and
the single layer of granulosa cells become
enlarged and cuboidal
 Zona pellucida – a layer of clear material
that is deposited around the primary
oocyte
 Secondary follicle – fluid-filled vesicles
appear and a theca forms around the
follicle
 FOLLICLE DEVELOPMENT

 Fluid filled spaces - vesicles

 Theca – a capsule that forms around the follicle
 Antrum – a single, fluid-filled chamber
 Cumulus cells – mass of granulosa cells
 Graafian follicle – mature follicle
 Corpus luteum – remaining cells of the
ruptured follicle are transformed into a
glandular structure

 Human chorionic gonadotropin hormone

(hCG) – the corpus luteum enlarges in response
to this hormone
 HORMONES
• ESTROGEN & PROGESTERONE
 Aid in uterine and mammary gland development and function, external genitalia
structure, secondary sexual characteristics, sexual behavior, menstrual cycle
 Estrogen - is the hormone that regulates the menstrual cycle
 Progesterone - is the hormone that supports pregnancy.

• HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN (HCG)

 Stimulate production of estrogen & progesterone
 created by trophoblast tissue, tissue typically found in early embryos
 stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone to maintain the
pregnancy.
 HORMONES
• OXYTOCIN
 stimulates labor
 Increased uterine contractions
 increased milk expulsion from mammary
glands

• PROLACTIN
 Development of breast during pregnancy
 Stimulates milk prod and prolongs
progesterone secretion
MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The onset of the menstrual

cycle, or menarche, begins
at puberty and ceases at
menopause. The cycle has
3 phases:
1) The follicular phase is characterized by menstruation, when the
thickened lining of the endometrium is shed because no egg was
fertilized or implanted. Just prior to this phase is a premenstrual
period characterized by hormonal and physical changes.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
2) The ovulatory phase comes
next. Estrogen is the hormone
produced by the ovaries, which
stimulates the maturation of a
follicle and thickens the
endometrium.
3) The luteal phase follows ovulation, and is characterized by the
development of the corpus luteum, the secretion of progesterone, the
preparation of the endometrium for implantation of a fertilized egg, and
the formation of a thick mucous to block the cervix once the egg passes
out of the fallopian tube.
 PREGNANCY
The fertilized egg implants in
the uterus. Progesterone
production increases to signal
a pregnancy; it can be
detected in urine and blood.
At the moment of conception, a single sperm
with 23 chromosomes (carrying genetic
information from the father)
penetrates/fertilizes a single egg with 23
chromosomes (carrying genetic information
from the mother). The resulting cell, a zygote,
now has 46 chromosomes. The cell begins
dividing and is also called a blastocyst. From
week 2-8, it is called an embryo.
 PREGNANCY

The embryo is suspended in an

amniotic sac surrounded by fluid
during the 280 day gestation
period. The umbilical cord
attached at the navel connects it
to the placenta, where it gets
nutrients and oxygen. During the
1st trimester, all parts of the
embryo are formed.

During the second trimester all parts start to function; during the last trimester
the embryo is now called a fetus and the main task is growth.
PREGNANCY
 PREGNANCY
Labor, characterized by muscle
contractions, dilation (to 10 cm)
and effacement (thinning)of the
cervix, and expulsion of the
mucous plug that formed in the
cervix, signals the onset of
Parturition, the childbirth process.
The Cephalic, or head-first
delivery, is the most common. The
Breech is a backward presentation; The umbilical cord is cut and clamped,
Caesarian or C-section is delivery and placenta (afterbirth) is delivered
through an incision in the following birth of the newborn/neonate
abdomen. baby.
Pregnancy can be complicated by certain
conditions:
1. Placenta previa is the development of the
placenta over the opening of the cervix.
2. Preeclampsia is a pregnancy- induced
hypertension (high blood pressure)
3. Abruptio placenta- he placenta partly or
completely separates from the inner wall of
the uterus before delivery. This can
decrease or block the baby's supply of
oxygen and nutrients and cause heavy
bleeding in the mother.
3. Spontaneous abortion or miscarriage is the loss
of a fetus during the first 20 weeks, often due to
abnormalities, trauma, or lifestyle choices.
PREGNANCY – POST PARTUM

The newborn may be covered with

traces of vernix caseosa (cheesy
coating) or lanugo (downy hair) that
protected the skin before birth.

The health of the baby is

immediately evaluated on the
APGAR scale. Color, heartbeat,
reflexes, muscle tone, and breathing
are scored on a scale of 0-10.
 BREAST/
S
The Breasts are the Mammary
glands (modified sweat gland),
varying in size according to age,
heredity, and the amount of fatty
tissue present. Each breast has
15-20 glandular lobes separated
by connective tissue. After
childbirth, the pituitary gland
stimulates these lobules with the
hormone prolactin… and they
produce milk.
 BREAST/
S
The dark-colored circle at the tip
of the breast is called the areola. It
contains sebaceous glands to keep
the skin conditioned. In the center
is the nipple, where ducts from the
lobules open.

The first secretion from the breast

is not a true milk, but a thin Colostrum contains nutrients and
yellowish substance called the mother’s immunities that can
colostrum. protect baby.
 BREAST/
S
Glandular lobes – covered by
adipose tissue; gives the breast its
form
Lactiferous duct – opens
independently to the surface of the
nipple

Myoepithelial cells – surround the

alveoli and contract to expel milk from
the alveoli
 MILK PRODUCTION

Lactation is the process of producing and

releasing milk from the mammary glands
in your breasts. Lactation begins in
pregnancy when hormonal changes signal
the mammary glands to make milk in
preparation for the birth of your baby. It’s
also possible to induce lactation without a
pregnancy using the same hormones that
your body makes during pregnancy.
Lactation ends once your body stops
producing milk.
Feeding your baby directly from
your breasts is called
Breastfeeding (or sometimes
chestfeeding) or nursing. You can
also feed your baby milk that you
have expressed or pumped from
your breast and saved in a bottle.
 MILK PRODUCTION
Human milk comes from your mammary glands inside your breasts. These
glands have several parts that work together to produce and secrete milk:

Alveoli: These tiny, grape-like sacs produce and store milk. A cluster of
alveoli is called lobules, and each lobule connects to a lobe.
Milk ducts/Lactiferous ducts: Each lobe connects to a milk duct. You can
have up to 20 lobes, with one milk duct for every lobe. Milk ducts carry milk
from the lobules of alveoli to your nipples.
Areola: The dark area surrounding your nipple, which has sensitive nerve
endings that lets your body know when to release milk. To release milk, the
entire areola needs stimulation. It helps to think of the lactation
Nipple: Your nipple contains several tiny pores (up to about 20) that secrete system as a large tree. Your
milk. Nerves on your nipple respond to suckling (either by a baby, your hands nipple is the trunk of the tree.
or a breast pump). This stimulation tells your brain to release milk from the The milk ducts are the
alveoli through the milk ducts and out of your nipple. branches. The leaves are the
. alveoli
 MILK PRODUCTION
Lactogenesis –
A series of hormonal events, which begin when you’re
pregnant, trigger the lactation process.

Stage One lactogenesis:

• This begins around the 16th week of pregnancy and lasts until a few days after you give
birth.
• Estrogen and progesterone rise and cause your milk ducts to grow in number and size. This
causes your breasts to become fuller. Your mammary glands begin to prepare for milk
production.
• Your nipples darken and your areolas become larger.
• Your Montgomery glands (small bumps on the areola) secrete oil to lubricate your nipple.
• Your body begins making colostrum. It’s highly nutritious and filling and serves as your
baby’s first milk.
 MILK PRODUCTION

Stage Two lactogenesis:

• This stage starts about two or three days postpartum (after giving birth). It’s when milk
production intensifies.
• Once your baby and placenta are delivered, a sudden drop in your estrogen and
progesterone causes the hormone prolactin to take over.
• Prolactin is the hormone that produces milk.
• You’ll notice your milk production increases dramatically at this stage. It’s often
referred to as milk “coming in.”
• Your breasts are often engorged (or overly full of milk) to the point where they feel sore,
painful or tender.
Stage Three lactogenesis:
• This describes the rest of the time you lactate.
• Lactation generally continues as long as milk is removed from your breast.
• The more milk that’s removed, the more milk your body makes to replace it. Frequent
feeding or pumping will cause your body to make more milk.
 MILK PRODUCTION
Hormones for lactation
The hormone prolactin controls the amount of milk you produce, and your body begins producing
prolactin early in pregnancy. At first, the high levels of estrogen, progesterone and other pregnancy
hormones suppress prolactin. Once you deliver the placenta, those pregnancy hormones drop and prolactin
takes charge.

When your baby suckles, it stimulates nerves that tell your body to release prolactin and oxytocin.
Prolactin causes the alveoli to make milk and oxytocin causes muscle contractions that push out of the
alveoli and through the milk ducts.

When milk is released, it’s called a “letdown,” and it takes about 30 seconds of suckling before the
letdown occurs. Because you can’t control which breast receives the hormones, the letdown can cause
milk to drip from both nipples.

Inducing lactation in people who aren’t pregnant requires medication that mimics hormones your body
makes during pregnancy. Suckling from the nipple can initiate lactation, either with a breast pump or by a
baby. This is a complex process that involves working closely with a healthcare provider who understands
the needs of non-pregnant people and has experience initiating lactation.
 MILK PRODUCTION
When do you lactate during pregnancy?
Lactation begins as early as a few weeks into the second
trimester of your pregnancy. As estrogen and progesterone
levels rise, your body prepares for lactation by increasing the
number of milk ducts in your breasts, and those milk ducts will
transport milk from the alveoli to your nipples. About midway
through pregnancy, your body creates colostrum, which is your
baby’s first milk.

Natural milk suppression

Lactation is a supply-and-demand process. Your milk supply gradually goes down as your baby relies less
on breast milk, or as you reduce the number of times you nurse or pump. Generally, if you decrease the
volume of milk removed from your breasts, your body will slow milk production.

Suppressing your milk can feel uncomfortable and most people will become engorged (the term for
overfilled breasts). You may also leak milk or develop a clogged milk duct. However, you can treat that
pain by taking an over-the-counter pain reliever, wearing a firm bra or using an ice pack on your breasts.
 MILK PRODUCTION
What is lactational amenorrhea?
Lactation amenorrhea means you aren’t menstruating (getting a period) due to
lactation. When you’re lactating, your body produces prolactin, the hormone that
produces milk. Prolactin reduces the amount of luteinizing hormone (LH) in your
body, which helps trigger the release of an egg during ovulation. If you aren’t
producing enough LH, you can’t ovulate or get your period. The length of time
you can be amenorrheic due to lactation varies from a few months or until you’re
completely done lactating.
How do you maintain milk production?
Maintaining lactation is mostly based on supply and demand. The more your baby breastfeeds or the more
milk you express with a breast pump, the more your body will make. There are ways to suppress lactation
with hormones or oral contraceptives. If you wish to maintain lactation, some things you should do are:

• Continue nursing on-demand or pump milk frequently (approximately every four hours).
• Eat a healthy diet with enough calories. Low-calorie diets can decrease milk supply.
• Drink plenty of water to stay hydrated. Human milk is primarily water.
• Avoid smoking, drugs or alcohol. These can reduce your supply and transfer to your milk.
 GYNECOMASTIA – occurs when the
breasts of a male become permanently
enlarged; results from hormonal
imbalance and the abuse of anabolic
steroids
 caused by male estrogen levels that
are too high
 OTHER TERMS REL. TO FEMALE REPRODUCTION
 Menarche – first episode of the menstrual bleeding
(first occurrence)
 Menstrual cycle – series of changes that occur in
sexually mature, non-pregnant females, and that
culminate in menses
 Menses – a period of mild hemorrhage; part of the
endometrium is sloughed and expelled from the uterus;
day 1 – 4: menstrual fluid is produced by degeneration
of the endometrium
 AMENORRHEA - absence of a menstrual cycle
is called
 Blastocyst – a collection of cells produced by the zygote
 Ectopic pregnancy – implantation occurs anywhere
other than in the uterine cavity
FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMS
DISORDERS
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
•Progressive infection—gets worse over time
•Affects fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix or ovaries
•Can lead to long term reproductive problems
•Symptoms include: foul-smelling discharge,
heavier than normal periods, painful urination
•Causes: bacteria move upward from a woman's
vagina or cervix (opening to the uterus) into her
reproductive organs. Many different organisms
can cause PID, but many cases are associated
with gonorrhea and chlamydia, two very common
bacterial STDs
 Toxic Shock Syndrome
Systemic illness: it affects the whole body
Caused by toxic bacterial
Ways to get it…
• Using superabsorbent tampons
• Wearing a diaphragm or contraceptive
sponge
• Having a staph or strep infection,
especially if you have skin wounds or
healing surgical incisions
Symptoms include: high fever, rapid drop
in blood pressure, sun burn like rash,
weakness, headaches and even kidney
failure
 Endometriosis
• In Endometriosis, the tissue begins to
grow on the outside of the uterus
• Causes: menstrual blood containing
endometrial cells flows back through the
fallopian tubes and into the pelvic cavity
instead of out of the body. These displaced
endometrial cells stick to the pelvic walls and
surfaces of pelvic organs, where they grow
• Symptoms include: severe pelvic pain,
constipation, diarrhea, pain when having
intercourse, can cause infertility
 BREAST CANCER
•Second Leading cause of cancer among women
(232,340 new cases a year)
•Every 3 minutes a woman is diagnosed with
breast cancer. 1 in 8 women will be diagnosed in
their lifetime.
•Approximately 2,150 men will be diagnosed each
year.
•There are 2.8 million breast cancer survivors
today.
•Early detection is the best way to protect yourself
PERFORMING A BREAST SELF
EXAM
First, look for changes…Then, feel for changes
Step 1: Lie down and raise right arm above head
Step 2: Examine area from underarm to lower bra
line; across to breast bone; up to collar bone; back to
armpit
Step 3: Use pads of three middle fingers of the left
hand to check the right breast, in dime-sized circles
 REFERENCES:

• VanPutte C. et.al. (2019). Seeley’s

Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology.
10th edition. New York: McGraw Hill
Co. Inc.