UNIT 27

Non-literal meaning: idioms,

metaphor, and metonymy
Attaya Tsamara Zahra (2211418082)
Rafita Fatma (2211418083)
Wigrha Veronica (22114084)
METAPHORS
• Definition:
METAPHORS are conceptual (mental) operations reflected in human language that
enable speakers to structure and construe abstract areas of knowledge and experience
in more concrete experiential terms.

• Example:
Baby, you’re a firework. John Mayer’s song “Your body is a wonderland”

• Components in metaphor:
1. Tenor, the concept of being actually discussed
2. Vehicle, the thing to which it is compared.
3. Connecting verb, “to be” is the common connecting verb.
4. Grounds, the relationship between the topic and the vehicle.
 Example
Time is Money
Time: the tenor
Is: the connecting verb
Money: the vehicle
Ground: valuable
 Structural metaphor
STRUCTURAL METAPHORS are abstract metaphorical systems in
which an entire (typically abstract) complex mental concept is
structured in terms of some other (usually more concrete) concept.
• example:
The war metaphor:
1. Your claims are indefensible.
2. He attacked every weak point in my argument.
 ORIENTATIONAL METAPHORS
ORIENTATIONAL METAPHORS give concepts spatial orientation by
associating an abstract knowledge area with some aspect of experiential
knowledge grounded in how human beings understand their orientation
in physical space, i.e. up vs down, front vs back, etc.
• Example
1. MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN: Speak up, please. Keep your
voice down, please.
HEALTHY IS UP; SICK IS DOWN: Lazarus rose from the dead.
He fell ill.
2. These people have very high standards.
3. I tried to raise the level of the discussion.
 Ontological metaphors
ONTOLOGICAL METAPHORS help structure our understanding
of abstract concepts and experiences, such as events, activities,
emotions, ideas, etc., in terms of our experience with actual
physical objects and substances in the real world.
• 3 types of ontological metaphors:
1. Container metaphor
2. Entity metaphor
3. Substance metaphor
 Container metaphor
• A containment metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which some
concept is represented as:
Having an inside and outside, and
Capable of holding something else.
• Examples:
1. I’ve had a full life.
2. Life is empty for him.
 Entity metaphor

An entity metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which an

abstraction is represented as a concrete physical object.
personification is belong to entity metaphor.
• Example
1. Her ego is very fragile.
2. You have to handle him with care since his wife’s death.
 Substance metaphor

A substance metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which

an abstraction, such as an event, activity, emotion, or idea,
is represented as material.
• Example
1. There was a lot of good sprinting in the race.
2. I couldn’t do much sprinting until the end.
IDIOMS
IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS (IDIOMS)

Multi-word phrases whose overall meanings are

idiosyncratic and largely unpredictable, reflecting
speaker meanings that are not derivable by
combining the literal senses of the individual
words in each phrase according to the regular
semantic rules of the language.
It follows that the typical meanings of idioms are not fully
compositional. Interestingly enough, however, most idioms also
have possible, though unlikely, literal compositional interpretations
along with their idiomatic senses. Which meaning is intended
usually depends on the context in which the expression is used.
For example:
let the cat out of the bag = reveal a secret
Take the bull by the horns = takes charge of a situation
He put his foot in his mouth = Say something foolish,
embarrassing, or tactless.
 Example
HE PUT HIS FOOT IN HIS MOUTH
a. Literal sense
he actually put one of his feet in his mouth.
b. Idiomatic sense
he said something inappropriate.
c. Context for literal sense
he could refer to a dog who is cleaning his feet by licking them.
d. Context for idiomatic sense
a person is saying things that are inappropriate.
The fact that many, though perhaps not all, idioms are at least
partly compositional tends to be obscured, because the
compositional aspects of the figurative meanings conveyed by
idioms are often metaphorical in nature. Let us look more closely
at some additional examples of idiomatic expressions that more
clearly evoke metaphors in order to understand better exactly what
metaphors are and how they work in everyday language. Makes
them appear to be anomalous if they are interpreted literally.
Describing what kind of intended non-literal meaning they convey.
 Examples
FRANK IS A SNAKE IN THE GRASS
• Anomaly:
Frank is being equated with (or classified as) being a particular kind of
animal (a snake), which is literally untrue
• Non-literal meaning:
something about Frank’s behaviour is untrustworthy.
METONYMY
 METONYMY

is a kind of non-literal language in which one entity is used

to refer to another entity that is associated with it in some
way. In other words, metonymic concepts ‘allow us to
conceptualize one thing by means of its relation to
something else.
 EXAMPLES
1. The pen is mightier than the sword.
The pen = words.
The sword = physical force.
So, the statement can be interpreted as "the words are much stronger than a
physical force." (wise word)
2. Tell me about your first date. I’m all ears!
Ears = for giving attention, listening.
 Purpose of Metonymy
One of the main purposes of a metonymy is to add flavor. Instead of
saying, "These chicken wings, coleslaw, and green beans are delicious,"
you could say, “This dish is delicious.” Now, you’ve avoided naming all
the separate elements of the meal, breaking up some of the
awkwardness and making the sentence more vibrant.
Metonymy allows us to make a closely related substitute to add interest.
As long as that substitute makes a logical connection, feel free to dress
up your writing with these colorful elements.
 The Importance of Metonymy
Because associative and referential thinking are so
natural and automatic to us, metonymies can be found
and understood frequently in everyday language,
literature, and pop culture. Metonymies allow for
brevity by replacing lists with an associated category.
 Specific types of Metonymy
a) Synecdoche
is a figure of speech in which, most often, a part of something is used to refer to its whole.
For example,
• A boy has been admitted to the hospital. The nurse says, “He’s in good hands.”
The boy is not literally being taken care of by two hands. Rather, he is being taken care of by an
entire hospital system, including nurses, assistants, doctors, and many others.
b) Metalepsis
is closely related to and sometimes understood as a specific kind of metonymy. Metalepsis is a
figure of speech in which a word or a phrase from figurative speech is used in a new context.
For example,
• A man who is trying to get to work early says, "I have to get going and catch a worm this
morning." This is a reference to the statement "The early bird gets the worm."
 Function of Synecdoche and Metalepsis

• Synecdoche
as a means of expressing a “whole” entity or idea in a rhetorical way by utilizing
a part of it. This is effective for readers in that synecdoche allows them to think
of an object or idea in a different way, in terms of the representation of its parts.
• Metalepsis
Generally, it is employed in a literary text to develop symbolism and metaphor,
by giving profound meanings to ideas and objects. By using metalepsis, the text
shows deeper and hidden meanings, and therefore draws the attention of readers.
THANK YOU