LECTURE- 3

LEAD AND CADMIUM

SOURCES, BEHAVIOR IN SOILS AND EFFECT

ON SOIL, PLANT AND HUMAN HEALTH
 Introduction
 Plants are the target of a wide range of pollutants that vary in concentration, speciation, and
toxicity. Such pollutants mainly enter the plant system through the soil or via the atmosphere.

 Among common pollutants that affect plants, lead (Pb) is one of the most toxic and frequently
encountered. Lead continues to be used widely in many industrial processes and occurs as a
contaminant in all environmental compartments (soils, water, atmosphere and living
organisms).

 Lead is known to induce a broad range of toxic effects to living organism, including those that
are morphological, physiological, and biochemical in origin. This metal impairs plant growth,
root elongation, seed germination, seedling development, transpiration, chlorophyll
production, lamellar organization in the chloroplast and cell division.
 Lead occurs naturally in the earth’s crust and its natural levels remain below 50 mg kg–1.

However, anthropogenic activities often modify the amount and nature of lead species present

in soil. In soils, lead may occur as a free metal ion, complexed with inorganic constituents (e.g.,

HCO3–,CO32–,SO42–, and Cl–), or may exist as organic ligands (e.g., amino acids, fulvic acids, and

humic acids); alternatively lead may be adsorbed onto particle surfaces (e.g., Fe-oxides,

biological material, organic matter, and clay particles).

 Anthropogenic-sourced lead generally accumulates primarily in the surface layer of soil, and its

concentration decreases with depth. Because of its strong binding with organic and/or

colloidal materials, it is believed that only small amounts of the lead in soil are soluble, and

thereby available for plant uptake.

 Dynamics of Pb in soil system

 Lead behaviour in soil, in the context of species, solubility, mobility, and bioavailability, is largely

controlled by complex interactions governed by many biogeochemical factors. These factors include
pH, redox conditions, cation-exchange capacity, soil mineralogy, biological and microbial conditions,
amount of lead present, organic and inorganic ligand levels, competing cation levels and plant species
involved. Such factors may act individually or in combination with each other and may alter the soil
behaviour of the lead present, as well as the rate of uptake by plants.

 Lead bioavailability is strongly influenced by its speciation and, in particular, by the concentration of

free lead ions present. This is because the most significant plant uptake route for many cationic metals
(and especially for the free metal ion) is via the soil solution in dissolved form.

 Moreover, the free lead ion concentration in soils depends on the adsorption/desorption processes in

which it participates.
 Lead Accumulation in Plants
Once lead has penetrated into the root system, it may accumulate there or may be
translocated to aerial plant parts. For most plant species, the majority of absorbed lead
(approximately 95% or more) is accumulated in the roots, and only a small fraction is
translocated to aerial plant parts.

When entering the root, lead mainly moves by apoplast and follows water streams until
it reaches the endodermis.

There are several reasons why the transport of lead from roots to aerial plant parts is
limited. These reasons include immobilization by negatively charged pectins within the
cell wall, precipitation of insoluble lead salts in intercellular spaces, accumulation in
plasma membranes, or sequestration in the vacuoles of rhizodermal and cortical cells.
 General Effects of Lead on Plants
• Germination is strongly inhibited by very low concentrations of lead. Lead-induced inhibition of seed

germination has been reported in Hordeum vulgare, Elsholtzia argyi, Spartina alterniflora, Pinus

halepensis, Oryza sativa, and Z. mays.

• At higher concentrations, lead may speed up germination and simultaneously induce adverse affects on

the length of radical and hypocotyl.

• Inhibition of germination may result from the interference of lead with protease and amylase enzymes.

• Lead exposure in plants also strongly limits the development and sprouting of seedlings.

• At low concentrations, lead inhibits the growth of roots and aerial plant parts. This inhibition is stronger

for the root, which maybe correlated to its higher lead content.

• Lead toxicity may also cause swollen, bent, short and stubby roots that show an increased number of

secondary roots per unit root length.

Sources of Pb in environment
Dynamics of lead in SPAC system
Pb toxicity in plant shoot and root system
 Cadmium
• Cadmium (Cd) is a non-essential trace element that is widely distributed in
the environment. Both geogenic and anthropogenic sources can elevate Cd
concentrations in soils and groundwater, which are important for
maintaining healthy supplies of food and safe drinking water.

• Elevated Cd doses are carcinogenic to humans. The WHO Guidelines for

Drinking-Water Quality recommend a guideline value for Cd of 3 μg/L.

• Important anthropogenic Cd sources include mining, atmospheric deposition

of combustion emissions, and the use of Cd-containing fertilizers.
 Cadmium Emissions to Soils
• Cadmium in soils must be distinctly classified in three separate areas with regard to their relative
effects on human health and the environment. These three areas are agricultural soils, non-
agricultural soils, and controlled landfills.
• Cadmium in controlled landfalls is virtually immobile, and is unlikely to have any effect on human
health or the environment simply because it is so well contained.
• Cadmium in non-agricultural soils will generally not affect human health as it does not enter the
food chain readily or may do so only indirectly by transfer from non-agricultural soils to agricultural
soils via airborne or water transport.
• However, the amount thus transferred is considered to be relatively low and is not expected to be a
significant proportion of the cadmium in non-agricultural soils.
• Cadmium in agricultural soils is likewise relatively immobile under normal conditions, but could
become more mobile under certain conditions such as increased soil acidity and its cadmium level
may be enhanced by the usage of phosphate fertilisers, manure or sewage sludge.
 Cadmium Levels in Soils
• The average natural abundance of cadmium in the earth's crust has most
often been reported from 0.1 to 0.5 ppm.

• Igneous and metamorphic rocks tend to show lower values, from 0.02 to 0.2
ppm whereas sedimentary rocks have much higher values (0.1 to 25 ppm).

• The raw materials for iron and steel production contain approximately 0.1
to 5.0 ppm, while those for cement production contain about 2 ppm.

• Fossil fuels contain 0.5 to 1.5 ppm cadmium, but phosphate fertilisers
contain from 10 to 200 ppm cadmium.
• Cadmium can be a potential threat to a wide range of biota because

a) it is non-essential and non-metabolic,

b) it is toxic to humans at concentrations lower than those toxic to plants,

c) it is more mobile and bioavailable than other metals, and

d) its effects on humans are cumulative.

Sources of Cd
Phytotoxicity of Cadmium
Dynamics of Cd in SPAC system
Cd bio-availability, uptake, toxicity and detoxification mechanism
Some Cd toxicity symptoms exhibited by plants
Cd toxicity in human health
Itai-Itai disease in human due to Cd toxicity
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