The Philosophical View of the

Self
SOCRATES
 Wisdom is the highest virtue of the Self.
 The Self is within the person who knows
 “You cannot err if you know.”
 “There is only one good, knowledge, and one
evil, ignorance.”
 “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
 “The soul is the seat of consciousness and
moral character.”
 The best way for people to live is to focus on
self-development rather than the pursuit of
wealth.
Socrates

 “I only know that I know nothing.“

 Socrates neglected his own affairs, instead spending his
time discussing virtue, justice, and piety wherever his
fellow citizens congregated, seeking wisdom about
right conduct so that he might guide the moral and
intellectual improvement of Athens.
Socrates’ view of the Self

 The Self is not composed of material substance

 The self is spiritual, hence, identifiable with the Soul

 The Self, being the soul is the seat of both waking consciousness and moral character

 The self, makes humans Moral Beings

PLATO

 Believed that there is that

“divine something” which
consists in a “voice” or “sign”
that opposes us when we are
about to do something wrong.
Plato
 All wrongdoing is done in ignorance, for everyone desires only
what is good
 In some sense, everyone actually believes certain moral principles,
even though some may think they do not have such beliefs, and
may disavow them in argument.
 Goodness is to be understood in terms of conduciveness to human
happiness, well-being, or flourishing, which may also be
understood as “living well,” or “doing well”
 all of the virtues are the same.
 the citizen who has agreed to live in a state must always obey the
laws of that state, or else persuade the state to change its laws, or
leave the state.
Plato’s view of the Self

 The Self is the vessel of all Virtues

 The self is spiritual

 The self makes humans Moral Beings

  HYLEMORPHISM: Everything is made
ARISTOTLE of of ‘Hyle” (matter) and “Morphie”
(form).
 Human being is composed of body and
soul.
 Body is material component (hyle)
 Soul is the formal component (morphie) of
the human being.
 Thus, the soul, which gives the human
being his essence , is the form.
 Man’s essence is “rational animal”.
 What makes him “rational” is the soul.
 Soul is the principle of life.
 Whatever lives has a soul.
Aristotle
 Man is a “Rational Animal”

 Man fits into the scheme of nature as a "thinking animal".

 The mind, that which distinguished man as a rational being, is
"incapable of being destroyed.“
 It is a special part of the psyche or soul which in turn is the
animating force of the body.
 The soul is the body's "form", and unlike Plato's soul, does not
have an existence separate from the body. Thus it does not survive
the death of the body.
 It possesses both actuality and potentiality, and is the efficient,
formal and final cause of the body.
 It has a goal or end, and carries within it the means to that end.
Aristotle
 Man is a “Political Animal”
 By this, Aristotle means Man lives best in a "polis", the city-
state form of the Greek state.
 that is, he is characterized by living within a society with
laws and customs.
 Man best fulfills his potential and natural end within a social
context.
 This is the "good life". This is not a life of ease, but a life of
virtue which results in the highest good, eudaimonia, or
having a good spirit, often translated as happiness.
Aristotle’s view of the Self

 For Aristotle, self – identity was essentially bodily

identity, without reference to self consciousness.
  Man is only free to do good. To do
evil is against his will.
Marcus Aurelius
 Everything we hear is an opinion,
not a fact. Everything we see is a
perspective, not the truth.
 You have power over your mind -
not outside events. Realize this, and
you will find strength.
 Our life is what our thoughts make
it.
 Very little is needed to make a
happy life; it is all within yourself,
in your way of thinking.
Marcus Aurelius
 The sexual embrace can only be compared with music and with
prayer.
 The object of life is not to be on the side of the majority, but to
escape finding oneself in the ranks of the insane.
 Waste no more time arguing about what a good man should be.
Be one.
 The art of living is more like wrestling than dancing.
Marcus Aurelius
 Do every act of your life as if it were your last.
 Because a thing seems difficult for you, do not think it impossible for anyone
to accomplish.
 He who lives in harmony with himself lives in harmony with the universe.
 A man's worth is no greater than his ambitions.
 Look within. Within is the fountain of good, and it will ever bubble up, if
thou wilt ever dig.
Aurelius’ view of the Self

 The Self is ‘inherently good’ or, good in itself

 The Self is a vessel of goodness.

 Aurelius also acknowledges the significant role of the mind in the existence of the Self.
ST. AUGUSTINE
 The self is the battleground of the body and
soul.
 Before the fall, the body and soul were in
perfect unity. After the fall they became
worst of enemies.
 Initially, the two elements were in perfect
harmony.
 After the fall of humanity they are now
experiencing dramatic combat between one
another.
 They are two categorically different things.
 The body is a three-dimensional object
composed of the four elements, whereas the
soul has no spatial dimensions.
 Soul is a kind of substance, participating in
reason, fit for ruling the body.
St. Augustine’s view of the Self

 The Self is like the world of the body and soul wherein the former (body) bears a weaker
nature than the latter (soul).
 The body and soul have their own natures and tendencies which make it difficult for them
to get along. This diversity of natures affects the condition of the self, depending on which
of the two is able to control.
 So, the self is negatively affected if it’s the body that is in control, while positively affected
if the soul is in control.
 The soul being the source of consciousness and participating in reason is powerful enough
to control the body.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
 Man is “rational animal”.
 “animal” presupposes the
corruptible and mortal part of the
human being, which is the body,
 “rationality” presupposes the soul,
the incorruptible and immortal
part.
St. Thomas Aquinas
 The human person is an organic unity. Despite substantiality of
the soul, it cannot be separated from the body.
 Form of the human person must be a subsistent spiritual
principle, existing in its own right, not in and thru existence of
composite human – a non-material “this” (individuating).
 Yet, it is a principle of the individual human – that by which a
human person is and understands.
 Understanding is an activity that transcends conditions of
matter.
St. Thomas Aquinas
 Aquinas maintains that a human is a single material substance.
 He understands the soul as the form of the body, which makes a
human being the composite of the two.
 Thus, only living, form-matter composites can truly be called
human; dead bodies are “human” only analogously.
 One actually existing substance comes from body and soul.
 A human is a single material substance, but still should be
understood as having an immaterial soul, which continues after
bodily death.
St. Thomas Aquinas
 Ultimately, humans are animals; the animal genus is body; body
is material substance. When embodied, a human person is an
“individual substance in the category rational animal.”
 The body belongs to the essence of a human being. In his
Summa theologiae Aquinas clearly states his position on the
nature of the soul; defining it as “the first principle of life.”
 The soul is not corporeal, or a body; it is the act of a body.
Because the intellect is incorporeal, it does not use the bodily
organs, as “the operation of anything follows the mode of its
being.
St. Thomas Aquinas
 The human soul is perfected in the body, but does not depend on
the body, because part of its nature is spiritual.
 In this way, the soul differs from other forms, which are only
found in matter, and thus depend on matter.
 The soul, as form of the body, does not depend on matter in this
way.
Aquinas’ view of the Self

 The Self is the uninterrupted unity of the body and soul.

 The Self terminates its existence when the person dies.
Immanuel Kant  Man is the only creature who
governs and directs himself and his
purpose, and freely orders means
to attain his aims.
 Every man is an end in himself and
should never be treated merely as a
means.
 Every person is endowed with
Categorical Imperatives or duties.
 All men are persons gifted with the
same basic rights and should treat
each other as equals.
Kant’s view of the Self

 The Self is a being with highest value and dignity and should be treated with utmost
respect and honor.

 The person who bears the self can never be used as a means to an end.

 The self is a bearer of duties.

Renè Descartes
 The human being exists in a dualism.
 the body works like a machine, that it has
material properties.
 The mind (or soul), on the other hand,
nonmaterial and does not follow the laws
of nature.
 This form of dualism or duality proposes
that the mind controls the body, but that
the body can also influence the otherwise
rational mind, such as when people act out
of passion. The self is a thinking entity
distinct from the body.
Descartes

 In order to attain certitude we must doubt everything unless

they were supported by “incontrovertible and absolute proof.”
 Since the mind/soul or the ‘thinking I’, cogito is clear and
distinct from the body which is matter, the ‘thinking I’ cannot
be doubted. Hence:

Cogito ergo sum

‘I think therefore I am’

Descartes

 Even the mind and the body are independent from each other
and serve their own function. Man must use his own mind and
thinking abilities to investigate, analyze, experiment, and
develop himself.
Descartes’ view of the Self

 The Self is the “thinking I”

  Personal identity (the self) is a matter of
John Locke
psychological continuity.
 Personal identity is founded on
consciousness (memory), and not on the
substance of either the soul or body.
 Personal identity is the concept about
oneself that evolves over the course of an
individual’s life.
 It may include aspects of life that man
has no control over, such as where he
grew up or the color of his skin, as well
as the choices he makes, like how he
spends his time and what he believes.
  Man has no “clear and intelligible” idea of the
self.
David Hume
 No single impression of the self exists; rather,
the self is just the thing to which all perceptions
of man is ascribed.
 Even if there were such an impression of the
self, it would have to remain constant over time
to constitute identity. But man’s impressions
vary and always change.
 Even attempts to have impressions of the self
must fail all these attempts are really just
occasions for one to notice perceptions.
 Thus, a person can never observe oneself
without other perceptions.
 Therefore, what we call the “self” is really just
“a bundle or collection of different perceptions
which succeed each other with an inconceivable
rapidity.”
  All humans are bad and ever ready to display
Niccolò Machiavelli their vicious nature, whenever they may find
occasion for it.
 Humans act right only under compulsion.
 The great majority of human beings is
satisfied with appearance, as though they
were realities, and are often even more
influenced by the things that seem than those
that are.
 Humans change masters willingly, hoping to
better themselves.
 It is better for a prince, who wishes to
maintain himself, to learn how not to be
good, and to use this knowledge and not to
use it according to the necessities of the case.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-
1900)

 the exemplary human being must

craft his/her own identity through
self-realization and do so without
relying on anything transcending that
life—such as God or a soul.
 all human behavior is motivated by
the will to power.
Nietzsche
 traditional values, like those taught
by Christianity, represented a “slave
morality,” a morality created by weak
and resentful individuals who
encouraged such behavior as
gentleness and kindness because the
behavior served their interests
 new values could be created to
replace the traditional ones
  The masses, the herd or mob, conform
to tradition, whereas his ideal Overman
Nietzsche
is secure, independent, and highly
individualistic.
 Concentrating on the real world, rather
than on the rewards of the next world
promised by religion, the Overman
affirms life, including the suffering and
pain that accompany human existence.
 The Overman is a creator of values, a
creator of a “master morality” that
reflects the strength and independence
of one who is liberated from all values,
except those that he deems valid.
HINDUISM
 Every living thing is a vessel of the Atman (soul).
 There are 8.4 million species of life and the
human being is the highest species.
 Only humans have the capacity of consciousness.
 Earthly life is “maya” or illusion.
 Reality is Brahman.
 There is no self. Every atman is a particle of
Brahman and the ultimate end of every atman is to
be reunited with Brahman.
 Vicious reincarnation indicates the unreadiness of
the atman to reunite with Brahman.
BUDDHISM

 The Buddhist view of the Self can be seen from

Buddha’s teachings:
1. Dukkha (The Four Noble Truths)
2. Anatman
3. Karma
4. Nirvana
DUKKHA
1. DUKKHA – Life is suffering

2. DUKKHA SAMUDAYA (Cause of Suffering) All suffering is caused by ignorance of the

nature of reality and the craving, attachment, and grasping that result from such ignorance.

3. DUKKHA NIRODHA (Cessation of Suffering) Suffering can be ended by overcoming

ignorance and attachment.

4. DUKKHA NIRODHA GAMINI PATIPADA (Pathway to freedom from suffering) The

path to the suppression of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of right
views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right-
mindedness, and right contemplation.
ANATMAN
 Human existence is made up of five aggregates or “bundles” (skandhas): the material
body, feelings, perceptions, predispositions or karmic tendencies, and consciousness.
 A person is only a temporary combination of these aggregates, which are subject to
continual change. No one remains the same for any two consecutive moments.
 Buddhists deny that the aggregates individually or in combination may be considered a
permanent, independently existing self or soul (atman).
 It is wrong to conceive of any lasting unity behind the elements that constitute an
individual.
 Belief in such a self results in egoism, craving, and hence in suffering.
 Thus, this results to the doctrine of anatman, or the denial of a permanent soul or self.
KARMA
 Karma consists of a person's acts and their ethical consequences.
 Human actions lead to rebirth, wherein good deeds are inevitably rewarded and evil deeds
punished.
 The karmic process operates through a kind of natural moral law rather than through a
system of divine judgment.
 One's karma determines such matters as one's species, beauty, intelligence, longevity,
wealth, and social status.
 According to the Buddha, karma of varying types can lead to rebirth as a human, an
animal, a hungry ghost, a denizen of hell, or even one of the Hindu gods.
NIRVANA
 The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is release from the round of phenomenal existence
with its inherent suffering.
 To achieve this goal is to attain nirvana, an enlightened state in which the fires of greed,
hatred, and ignorance have been quenched.
 Not to be confused with total annihilation, nirvana is a state of consciousness beyond
definition.
 After attaining nirvana, the enlightened individual may continue to live, burning off any
remaining karma until a state of final nirvana (parinirvana) is attained at the moment of
death.
CONFUCIANISM
 Confucian ethics is characterized by the
promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five
Constants, or the Wuchang( 五常 ), extrapolated
by Confucian scholars during the Han Dynasty.
The Five Constants are:
1. Rén ( 仁 , humaneness);
2. Yì ( 義 , righteousness or justice);
3. Lǐ ( 禮 , proper rite);
4. Zhì ( 智 , knowledge);
5. Xìn ( 信 , integrity).
 These Five Constants are accompanied by the classical Sìzì ( 四字 ) that singles out four
virtues, one of which is included among the Five Constants:
1. Zhōng ( 忠 , loyalty);
2. Xiào ( 孝 , filial piety);
3. Jié ( 節 , continency);
4. Yì ( 義 , righteousness).
 There are still many other elements, such as:

1. chéng ( 誠 , honesty)
2. shù ( 恕 , kindness and forgiveness)
3. lián ( 廉 , honesty and cleanness)
4. chǐ ( 恥 , shame, judge and sense of right and wrong)
5. yǒng ( 勇 , bravery)
6. wēn ( 溫 , kind and gentle)
7. liáng ( 良 , good, kindhearted)
8. gōng ( 恭 , respectful, reverent)
9. jiǎn ( 儉 , frugal)
10. ràng ( 讓 , modestly, self-effacing).
Two Confucian Schools of Thought

1. Mencius continued the ethical teachings of Confucius by stressing the innate goodness of
human nature. He believed, however, that original human goodness can become depraved
through one's own destructive effort or through contact with an evil environment. The
problem of moral cultivation is therefore to preserve or at least to restore the goodness that
is one's birthright.

2. Hsün-tzu contended that a person is born with an evil nature but that it can be regenerated
through moral education. He believed that desires should be guided and restrained by the
rules of propriety and that character should be molded by an orderly observance of rites
and by the practice of music. This code serves as a powerful influence on character by
properly directing emotions and by providing inner harmony.
The Self to Confucianism
 Confucianism understands the self in terms of something greater. In this case the greater
reality is the human society. What is really important in human life is society as it is
concretized in family and friendship and the state. The individual self’s major concern
should be to act in such a way that these social units are preserved in a tradition and correct
form.

 In this philosophy of Confucianism, the individual human being, the self, is understood
precisely as a past family, friendship or state. The purpose of his life is found in his
fulfilling of his assigned role in these various social units. From family and state he has
certain clear obligations which he must endeavor to fulfill. He lives wisely and his life is
truly human to the extent that he fulfills these obligations, and his family and state prosper.
  Taoism maintained that the individual should
ignore the dictates of society and seek only to
TAOISM conform with the underlying pattern of the
universe, the Tao (“way”), which can neither be
described in words nor conceived in thought.
 To be in accord with Tao, one has to “do nothing”
(wu-wei)—that is, nothing strained, artificial, or
unnatural.
 Through spontaneous compliance with the
impulses of one's own essential nature and by
emptying oneself of all doctrines and knowledge,
one achieves unity with the Tao and derives from
it a mystical power (Tô).
 This power enables one to transcend all mundane
distinctions, even the distinction of life and death.
 At the sociopolitical level, the Taoists called for a
return to primitive agrarian life.