Cognitive Theory

Linguistics
 Abstract

•Cognitive-learning theories delve into the mind's processes.

•The philosophical foundations of cognitive theories are traced back to Plato.

•William James and John Dewey rejected structuralism as too limited to comprehend the mind.

•The mind's mechanisms underwent significant shifts in interpretation, moving from the Gestalt perspective
to Kurt Lewin's emphasis on motivation in learning.

•Frederic C. Bartlett's concept of schemata, Jean Piaget's explanations of cognitive growth and development,
and Jerome S. Bruner's refinement of Piaget's theory are explored.

•The contributions of other disciplines, such as Noam Chomsky's linguistic advancements and the computer's
impact on cognitive psychology, are briefly described.
 Definition
• Cognitive theory focuses on the interaction between mental
components and information processing.
• Individuals create cognitive structures that shape their understanding
of themselves and the world.
• Learning is viewed as one of many mental processes, not the primary
focus of cognitive research.
• Cognitive theorists differ in emphasis, some focusing on information-
processing skills, others on mental models or cognitive development.
• Cognitive psychologists do not follow a rigid set of rules or
methodologies.
 Basic Concepts
• Cognitive theorists emphasize the integration of new information into existing mental
structures called schemata (Baron & Byrne, 1987).
• Schemata serve several crucial functions in human cognition:
• They store information in long-term memory.
• They provide frameworks for understanding new information.
• They guide attention and regulate information processing.
• They fill in gaps in our understanding of the world.
• Schemata allow the mind to selectively organize and process the vast amount of
information we encounter (Baron & Byrne, 1987).
• Schemata are dynamic and constantly evolving as we learn and experience new things
(Bell-Gredler, 1986).
 The Executive Monitor
• The executive monitor manages the comprehensive network of mental
processes involved in learning and information processing
(Blumenthal, 1977).

• It coordinates the vast flow of sensory input, selecting, arranging, and

encoding new information for storage based on individual factors such
as interests, motivations, and perceptions (Bell-Gredler, 1986).
 Attention and Encoding
• Attention plays a crucial role in selecting what individuals notice and
focus on, while encoding prepares the data for storage (Bell-
Gredler, 1986).
• Schemata are not exact copies of the input; they are modified to fit the
individual's existing framework of knowledge (Baron & Byrne, 1987).
• Retrieval of information from memory is also selective, as schemata
only recall what corresponds to the currently active script
(Mayer, 1981).
 Information Processing for Storage
• Information processing for storage involves several key cognitive
components:
• Sensory buffer: Briefly captures raw sensory input, limited capacity
(Mayer, 1981).
• Short-term memory (STM): Holds approximately seven items, expandable
through chunking (Mayer, 1981).
• Working memory (WM): Similar to STM, but used for specific mental
operations (Mayer, 1981).
• Long-term memory (LTM): Organized, meaningful, permanent, unlimited
capacity (Mayer, 1981).
 Meaningful Learning
• Meaningful learning occurs when knowledge in LTM is
transferred to STM to integrate new information (Bell-
Gredler, 1986).
• Cognitive associations are formed when individuals relate
stored knowledge to sensory input and encode the stimuli
into LTM (new schemata) (Bell-Gredler, 1986).
• Cognitive learning emphasizes internal mental processes of
association, unlike behavioral views based on external
motivation (Bell-Gredler, 1986).
 Ancient Philosophical Foundations
400 BC
• Plato's Idealism:
• Reality consists only of spirit and mind.
• Ethical conduct stems from moral education.
• All knowledge is innate; introspection is the sole truth-discovery
method.
• Constant mind exercise through mathematics and classics is
advocated.
 Descartes' Rationalism (17th century)

• Rationalism:
• Intellect develops through deep contemplation of innate ideas.
• Descartes' "I think; therefore I am" exemplifies emphasis on logical
thought and deduction.
• Rationalism's mental growth model revolves around a few
axioms, akin to mathematics.
 Psychological Foundations
• Wilhelm Wundt and Structuralism
• Wundt, the founder of experimental psychology, was the first to explore the
cognitive structures involved in mental processing (Bell-Gredler, 1986).
• According to Wundt, human experience begins with measurable mental
functions like awareness, reaction, and perception (Blumenthal, 1977).
• As experiences become more focused, mental organization
increases, transforming "vague awareness into clear attention" and leading to
"creative synthesis" (Blumenthal, 1977, p. 16).
• Wundt's structuralism emphasized introspection and self-report, although it
was later criticized for its narrow focus and reliance on inconsistent
information.
Psychological Foundations Cont…
• William James and Functionalism
• James and Dewey rejected structuralism, believing it was too narrow
for understanding human cognition (Bell-Gredler, 1986).
• James emphasized the process of cognition as it relates to
environmental adaptation, influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution
(McEntire, 1992).
• Dewey's functionalism became a prominent theory in
psychology, emphasizing the total process of mental activity, an idea
that later became a key component of cognitive psychology.
Psychological Foundations Cont…
• Gestalt Psychology and Max Wertheimer
• Gestalt psychology emerged as a competing viewpoint to behaviorism
in the early 1900s.
• Gestalt theory explains behavior and learning based on one's
perceptual organization of events and objects (Blumenthal, 1977).
• Individuals constantly organize stimuli in their phenomenal field, with
the focused item called the figure and the rest of the field called the
ground (Hansen, 1986).
• Perception of stimuli determines which object becomes the figure at
any given time.
Psychological Foundations Cont…

Gestalt Psychology and the Law of Pragnanz

• Gestalt psychology emphasizes the importance of perception in cognition.

• According to the general law of Pragnanz, individuals perceive complete

and meaningful figures.

• Gestalt principles, such as closure, proximity, and similarity, influence

how we organize stimuli.
Psychological Foundations Cont…

True Learning or Insight

• Gestalt theory proposes that true learning, or insight, occurs when

individuals perceive new relationships within their perceptual fields.

• Learning is based on changes in the perceptual process, resulting in

new connections between stimuli.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Edward Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

• Tolman's purposive behaviorism complements Gestalt psychology by

emphasizing goal-oriented behavior.

• Individuals learn specific events that lead to the satisfaction of particular goals.

• Tolman's concept of latent learning separates the process of learning from

performance.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Kurt Lewin's Motivational Learning

• Lewin's research demonstrates that rote rehearsal of information without the

intention to learn results in little or no success.

• Lewin's concept of cognitive structures distinguishes motivational learning

from other types of learning.

• Factors such as needs, motivations, and future time perspective interact with
these structures to instigate thoughts and behaviors.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Kurt Lewin and Psychological Forces

• Lewin's cognitive behavior is influenced by one's entire psychological

environment.

• Positive and negative forces affect an individual's reactions to situations (life

spaces).

• Lewin's concepts of motivation and psychological forces formed a foundation

for other theorists.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Frederic C. Bartlett and Schemata

• Bartlett introduced the concept of schemata, mental structures that influence

perception, memory, and comprehension.

• Individuals construct scenarios to fill in gaps in incomplete information.

• Schemata play a crucial role in shaping our understanding of the world.

 Psychological Foundations Cont…
Jean Piaget and Cognitive Growth
• Piaget emphasized the dynamic relationship between internal
structures, cognitive processes, and the environment in cognitive growth.
• Individuals actively construct knowledge through assimilation and
accommodation.
• Equilibration regulates assimilation and accommodation, maintaining stability
within cognitive growth.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Jerome S. Bruner and Cognitive Development

• Bruner proposed three modes of representation: enactive, iconic, and

symbolic.

• Learning progresses from enactive (concrete, hands-on) to iconic (image-

based) to symbolic (abstract, language-based).

• Bruner's emphasis on active learning influenced instructional design.

 Psychological Foundations Cont…
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Levels of Development
• Piaget proposed three cognitive levels of
development: preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations
(d'Ydewalle & Lens, 1981).
• Preoperational (ages 2-6): The child begins to create relationships between
experiences and mental actions.
• Concrete operations (ages 6-10): Cognitive processes manipulate symbols and
language related to concrete objects.
• Formal operations (ages 10-14): The child delves into abstract
thinking, scientific reasoning, and introspection (Bruner, 1960).
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Jerome S. Bruner's Three Modes of Representation

• Bruner proposed three modes of representation: enactive, iconic, and symbolic

(Bruner, 1966).

• Enactive: Knowledge is manifested through actions.

• Iconic: Visual organization and summarization of images.

• Symbolic: Experiences are described through symbolic systems like language

(Bruner, 1966).
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Noam Chomsky's Linguistic Analysis

• Chomsky analyzed factors responsible for language generation and

comprehension (Mayer, 1981).

• Individuals possess innate structures that determine a universal language.

• Chomsky relates language to surface structures (word order) and deep

structures (psychologically meaningful aspects) (Hayes, 1970).
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Computer Analogy and the Information Processing Model

• The computer's functions (storage, retrieval, manipulation, problem-solving)

were deemed analogous to human cognition.

• The information processing model became dominant within cognitive

psychology.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Donald Broadbent and the Multistage Memory System

• Broadbent viewed memory as an active and organized multistage system (Bell-

Gredler, 1986).

• Broadbent's proposals of sensory buffers, short-term memory, and long-term

memory each played substantial roles in the theory.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Ulric Neisser's Formal Information Processing Model

• Neisser dealt with specific cognitive structures, mental processes, and

perception (Mayer, 1981).

• Neisser discussed the storage and retrieval of information in long-term

memory.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

John Bransford and J.J. Franks' Constructive Process of Sentence Recognition

• Bransford and Franks emphasized the constructive process of providing

meaning for sentences.

• Individuals integrate separate ideas into unified representations of the

concepts.
 Psychological Foundations Cont…

Allen Newell and Herbert Simon's Problem-Solving Strategies

• Newell and Simon applied problem-solving processes directly to computer

operations.

• The process of strategizing involves three steps: presenting the

problem, developing goals and subgoals, and employing means-end analysis.
 Conclusion

Cognitive Learning Theories

• Cognitive learning theories explore the processes involved in human

learning.

• These theories emphasize how individuals

perceive, organize, store, and retrieve information.

• Cognitive approaches can be applied to any discipline.

 Conclusion …

Primary Emphases of Cognitive Learning Theories

• Problem-solving: Cognitive learning theories focus on how

individuals approach and solve problems.

• Storage and retrieval of information: These theories also emphasize

the importance of effective storage and retrieval of information for
learning.
 Conclusion …
Benefits of Cognitive Learning Theories
• Enhanced understanding of how people learn: Cognitive learning
theories provide insights into the cognitive processes involved in
learning.
• Improved instructional design: These theories can inform the
development of more effective instructional strategies.
• More efficient and effective learning: Cognitive approaches can help
individuals learn more efficiently and effectively.
 Conclusion …

Ongoing Study and Enhancement of Cognitive Learning Theories

• Cognitive learning theories are constantly being refined and expanded.

• The ongoing study of these theories can further improve our

understanding of how people learn.

• Enhanced understanding of learning can lead to more effective

instruction and learning outcomes.